sea level 20, 36
sea trade/traders 22-3, 32., 95-7,m-12, 117, 141-3, 191
boats/ships 61-3, 90, 91, 93-103, 117, 202, 254
see also ports/harbours seagoing peoples 160-61, 170-80, 183, 248
Phoenicians as 97, 100-101, 112, 185, 202, 207-10
sedimentary rocks 11, 19-20
Seele, Keith 61
de Selincourt, Aubrey 275, 287
The World of Herodotus 260
Semitic peoples 167-70, 179, 184-5
Seneca 349
Senegal, river 16
Sennacherib, king of Assyria 202
Serapis (the god) 301
Septimus Severus 336, 349-50, }j8 Servius Tullius, king of Rome 308
Seth (the god) 86
settlement patterns 183, 184-7
colonization 205-57, 261, 163, 280, 283-4, 308, 310, 311
geographical influences 14-15, 16, 157-64, 192, 260-62
see also migration Shamash (the god) 117-18
ships see boats/ships; sea trade/traders Siberia 41
Sicily 12, 13, 24, 36, 223
archaeological sites 3 5
as Carthaginian colony 251-1, 311
as Greek colony 150-53, 263, 179, 311
importance of 114
Syracuse 12, 151, 180
see also Italy Sidon 101, 216, 110, 226
silver see gold/silver Sinouhe (the Egyptian) 87
slavery 85-6, 219, 271-3, 301-1, 313, 318
Smith, W. S. 127, 149, 152, 153, 182
Smyrna 244-5
social structure 15, 16, 23, 181, 195
agricultural 15, 18, 20, 21, 41, 48-59, 60, 161, 247-8
cave dwellers 39
democracy 272-3
development of 60-112
Egyptian 85-7
Greek 242, 248, 249, 259-65, 268
hierarchical 14
merchant class 119, 220
Mesopotamia 89-90
nomadic 15, 16, 31-3, 161-2, 167-9, 187, 188, 189
pastoral 34, 47, 162-4
peasant 19, 85
Roman 325
slavery 85-6, 219, 272-3, 301-2, 313, 318
towns/cities 49, 53, 54, 58, 61, 81-1, 133-5, 136, 184, 134, 135-6, 244-5. 304-5. 318. 338-41, 344-5 J Greek city states 142, 148, 249, 259-65, 268, 273-5
villages 48, 49, 52-9, 60
Socrates 274, 292, 295, 296
soil erosion 20-21
soldiers see armies; weapons/warfare Solomon, king 185, 210, 214
Solon (the Athenian) 269, 271, 272
Solutre people 46
Sophists 287-8
Sophocles 258, 274
Spain 32, 41
archaeological sites 109-10
Cadiz 101, 221
cave paintings 42, 44-6, 45
immigrants 193
the Levante 44, 109-10
megaliths 109-10, 129, 38inn
New Carthage (Cartagena) 314
as Roman province 314
Segovia 12
silver from 215, 221, 222, 249, 252, 314
trade 112, 214;
see also silver from above Sparta 261, 262, 265, 284
spinning see weaving Stekelis, M. 105
the steppes 161-4, 335
Stoicism 299, 343
stone age:
middle see mesolithic era
new see neolithic era
old see paleothic era stone drills 69
Straton 299, 302
Stromboli 13
Suevi people 330, 331
Suez isthmus 36, 96-7
Sulla/Sylla, Lucius Cornelius 325, 344
Sumerian civilization 27, 64-5, 77, 78, 82, 88
see also Mesopotamia Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites 172-3
Sybaris, 252, 289
Syria 32, 41, 51, 64, 131, 181, 188, 320-21
desert areas 161, 162, 167-9, 327
Egypt and 166
Greece and 264
immigrants 151
language 198
Roman empire and 319
tgrade 74, 90, 95-6, 102-3, 160
see also Al-Mina
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius 332, 349
Tages (the nymph) 238
Tanit cult:
in Carthage 226, 227, 228
Taranto, Gulf of 250
Tarentum, Gulf of 312-13
Tarquinius Priscus, king of Rome 308
Tarquinius Superbus, king of Rome 308
Taurus mountains 76, 158, 179
taxation systems 85-6, 115
technological advances:
irrigation techniques 67-8
metal working 75-6, 114-15
potter’s wheel 68-70, 132
scientific 295-7, 300-301, 339-40
stone drills 69
tools, use of 29, 30, 31-2, 38, 40-41, 50
weapons 38, 40, 47
weaving 71-3
the wheel 132, 136
see also agricultural development; science Telemachus 14-15
Tell el-Amarna 121, 138, 143, 152, 154, 156
Terence 303, 349
tertiary era 12
Tethys sea 12
Teuton people 328
textiles 72-3, 138, 210-11, 252
see also clothing; crafts Thales of Miletus 269, 288, 289, 290
Thebes 262
Themistocles 275-6
Theocritus 304
Theodosian Codex 351
Theophrastrus 299, 302
Characters 302
Thera, island 13, 243
volcanic eruption 138-40
Thessaly 3 5
Thoth (the god) 86
Thucydides 101, 270, 287
Tiber, river 235
Tiberius, emperor of Rome 332, 3 52
Tibullus 348, 349
Tiglath Pileser I, king of Mesopotamia 169
Tigris, river 60, 62, 64, 65, 184, 185, 333
traffic on 92
timber:
for boats/ships 93, 101, 312-13
Etruscan 239-42
see also the dead: burial tools, use of 29, 30, 31-1, 40-41, 50, 191
agricultural implements 50
flints 31, 32, 38
iron tools 197
specialized tools 40, 191
splinter tools 31
two-sided tools 31
wooden handles 31, 38, 40
see also weapons/warfare towns/cities 49, 53, 54, 58, 61, 81-2, 38on8
Cretan 133-5, 136
defensive 81, 244-5
Etruscan 234, 235-7
Greek 184, 304-5; city states 242, 248, 249, 259-65, 268, 273-5
Mesopotamian 88
palaces and 133-5
Roman 328, 338-42, 344-5
trade/traders 15, 53-4, 55, 63, 132, 209, 212, 263, 178, 318-19
caravan routes 16, 117, 168, 184, 327
colonialization and 248-9, 152-3, 263
in copper/bronze 114-18, 215
currency payments 118-21
in grain 263
importance of 181, 246, 252, 263
merchant class 119, 220
in metals 76, 114-18, 215, 221, 222,
in pottery 252-3
sea trade 22, 32, 90, 91, 95-7, 117, 135-8, 142-3, 160, 191, 202, 213-22, 154-5
in timber 74, 312-13
Trajan 181, 332-4
Trajan’s column 333, 347, 349
transport see communications/transport trees/vines 337-8
Troy 129-31
Tuchulcha (the demon) 242
Tunisia 15, 36
Turkey 161, 162, 173, 214
see also Anatolia Turms see Hermes
Tutankhamun, pharaoh 115, 197, 211
Tutmosis I, pharaoh 153
Tutmosis III, pharaoh 70, 121
Tyre 161, 184, 185, 186, 208-9 217-18, 231, 281
Tyrrhenian Sea 231, 251, 252
Ugarit 80, 112, 116, 118, 119, 149, 150, 155, 159, 165, 166, 170, 171-3, 178, 179, 198, 226
Umbrian people 193
Uni see Juno
&n
bsp; Ur73, 88, 126
Ural mountains 42
urban societies see towns/cities
urn burials see the dead: cremation
Uruk pottery 68-9
Vallet, Georges 253
Van, Lake 184
Varagnac, Andre 194
Varus, Publius Quintilius 332
Vegoia (the nymph) 238
Veneti people 331
Ventris, Michael 123
Vercingetorix 331
Vernant, J.-P. 290, 291
Vertumnus (the god) 238
Vespasian, emperor of Rome 345
Vesta (the goddess) 308
Vesuvius, Mount 13
Vieyra, Maurice 68
villages 48, 49, 52-9, 60
defensive 53, 55, 56
Villanovan people 193
vines see trees/vines Virgil 21, 348
Aeneid 348
Vita-Finzi, Claudio:
The Mediterranean Valleys 19
Volcanoes 13, 138-40
see also individual volcanoes
warships 99-100, 180, 202, 312-13
see also boats/ships water supplies 47, 53, 65, 66, 173, 209, 344
see also food supplies/diet weapons/warfare 47, 163, 164, 179-80, 184-7,
bows and arrows 40, 47
civil war 320-21, 323
copper/bronze weapons 107, 115, 138
cost of 181
iron weapons 181
Roman 309, 310, 317-18
spears 38, 40
see also armies; naval power; tools weaving see textiles Weber, Alfred 27, 37, 86, 276
West Indies 12
the wheel 132, 136, 163
potter’s wheel 68-70, 132
Will, E. 265
winds 16-17
see also climatic conditions women:
attitudes to 57
burial after death 57
clothing 73
mother-goddesses 41, 104, 106, 129, 146, 167, 225-6
position of 71
working 71, 72-3
wood see timber Woolner, Diana 97, 102
worship/religion 42, 50, 71-2, 116, 155-7, 167
in Carthage 222, 225-8
Christianity 352-5
in Crete 129, 135, 145-7
in Egypt 83, 84, 86, 154, 155-7
Etruscan 230-31, 237-9
fertility symbols/cults 41, 57, 71, 225-6
in Greece 266, 268-9, 273-4
human sacrifice 227-8, 230
in Mesopotamia 88-9
mother-goddesses 41, 104, 106, 129, 167, 225-6
in Roman empire 353, 354;
see also Christianity above
sacred art, 56, 57, 346
see also magic; megaliths writing 177-8
alphabets 197-9
development of 26, 27, 30, 76-80, 79, 164, 198-9
Linear A and B scripts 78, 197, 198
pictograms 76-7, 93, 198
see also language; number systems
Xenophon 281, 296
Anabasis 281
Xerxes I 222
Yakimlu, king of Arados 216
Zagros mountains 64, 158, 159
Jarmo 52-3
Zeno of Citium 294-5,
Zeus (the god) 128, 132, 145, 238, 273, 354
* In writing this essay I have been helped of course by Braudel’s own brief description of his historical development published in English in the Journal of Modern History for 1972, but more especially by the magnificent biography of Pierre Daix, Braudel (Flammarion, 1995). The lectures from the period of the Second World War, and the fragments related to the third volume of Braudel’s L’Identity de la France, are published in Les ambitions de l’Histoire (Editions de Fallois, 1997).
Christopher Logue’s poem was first published in Harold Berliner’s de luxe edition of War Music, Nevada City, California, 1999. It is reprinted here as fitting homage to Braudel, for which privilege I thank my friend Christopher Logue.
The Mediterranean in the Ancient World Page 48