]; use of standing dead trees, [>]–[>]; See also feathers
bison. See buffalo
Blarina (short-tailed shrew): brevicauda, buried by beetles, [>]–[>]; feeding from raven leftovers, [>]
blowfly. See Lucilia
bluebird, [>]
body temperature. See temperature of carcass
Bombus (bumblebee): affinis, [>]; bimaculatus, [>]; burying beetle which mimics, [>], [>]; griseocollis, [>]; impatiens, [>]; perplexus, [>]; sandersoni, [>]; vagans, [>]
bones: archaeological evidence, [>], [>], [>], [>]; beetles used to clean a skeleton, [>]; as a calcium source, [>]; decomposition of whale carcass, [>], [>]; gnawed by animals, [>], [>]; kept as a memento, [>], [>]; marrow as a food source, [>]; worms which burrow into, [>]
Bornemissza, George, [>]–[>]
A Brief History of Time (Hawking), [>]
Bronowski, Jacob, [>]
buffalo (bison): predation by humans, [>]–[>], [>], [>]; predation by wolves, [>]; recycling of waste products, [>]
bugs, true, [>]
burial, vs. disposal, [>]
burial practices, human: burial of pets, [>]; cremation, [>], [>], [>]; green burial, [>], [>], [>]; keeping bones as mementos, [>]–[>]; sky burial, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]; traditional, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
butterfly, [>], [>], [>]
cache behavior: by the author, [>]; by cats, [>]; by ravens, [>], [>]–[>]
calcium, [>]
calcium carbonate: in coccoliths, [>]; in coral, [>]; in limestone, [>], [>]
camouflage, [>], [>]
caracara, South American, [>]
carbon: metabolized in the mitochondria, [>]; recycling and sequestration, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]; role in deepwater ecosystem, [>]; role in primary production, [>], [>]
carbon dioxide: atmospheric, [>]; in concrete production, [>]; plant uptake, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]; released during respiration, [>]
Çatal Hüyük archaeological site, [>]–[>]
Cathartes aura (turkey vulture), [>]; description, [>]; feeding on carcasses, [>], [>], [>]; flight, [>]; lack of attraction to a carcass, [>]–[>], [>]; population status, [>], [>]; sense of smell, [>], [>]
cats: cache behavior, [>]; large, in sequence of undertakers, [>], [>]; saber-toothed, [>], [>]
cedar, [>], [>]
cellulose, [>], [>]
centipede, [>]
chalk, [>]–[>]
chemicals, toxic. See under environmental issues
chemosynthesis, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
chickadees: black-capped, [>]; boreal, [>]; fed by humans, [>]; nests, [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>]
chimera, [>]–[>], [>], [>]
chimpanzee, [>], [>], [>]
chloroplast, [>], [>], [>]
Cho, Adrian, [>]
Churchill, Winston, [>]
clams: algal symbiont, [>]–[>]; in deepwater vent ecosystem, [>], [>]; and formation of limestone, [>]
climate change. See global warming
coal, [>], [>]–[>]
coccolith, [>]
cockroach, [>], [>]
Colydium lineola, [>]
commensialism, [>]
competition: with bacteria, resistance to biotoxins, [>]; with bacteria, use of antibiotics by animals, [>], [>]; with other animals for a carcass, [>], [>], [>]; with other beetles for dung, [>], [>]–[>]; with other plants for light and resources, [>], [>]; with other predators for prey, [>]–[>]; with predators for livestock, [>]
concrete, [>], [>]
condors: Andean (see Vultur gryphus); California, [>], [>]–[>], [>]; captive rearing and release, [>]–[>]; endangered, [>]–[>]; feeding on whale carcass, [>]; flight, [>]; reproduction, [>], [>]
conifers. See pines
copepod, [>]
Coragyps atratus (black vulture), [>], [>], [>]–[>]
coral: algal symbiont, [>]–[>]; description, [>], [>]; environmental threats, [>]; and formation of limestone, [>]
Corvus corax (raven), [>]; beliefs about, [>]–[>], [>]; cache behavior, [>]–[>]; at the camp in Maine, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]; communal roosts, [>]; and deer carcass, [>], [>], [>]; feeding on carcasses, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>], [>]; flight, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]; Goliath, [>]–[>], [>]; Houdi, [>]; intelligence, [>], [>], [>]; lifelong mated pairs, [>]; nesting behavior and nests, [>]–[>], [>], [>]; overview of food sources, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]; play, [>]; population status, [>]; public perception as grim, [>], [>], [>]; salmon as food source, [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>], [>]–[>], [>]; sky burial by, [>], [>], [>]; vocalization, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; Whitefeather, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
coyotes: feeding from raven caches or leftovers, [>]; feeding on moose carcass, [>]; poisoned by humans, [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>], [>], [>]; vocalization, [>]
crabs: in deepwater ocean, [>], [>]; stone, [>]
creeper, brown, [>], [>]
cremation, [>], [>], [>]
crinoid, [>]
crows: pied, [>]; response to squirrel carcass, [>]–[>]; salmon as food source, [>]; vocalization, [>]
Cucujus clavipes (red flat bark beetle), [>]
culture: Acheulian, [>], [>]–[>], [>]; characteristics, [>]; impact of unsustainable use of fossil fuels, [>]; nomadic, [>]–[>]; transfer of knowledge, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]; See also beliefs
curlew, Eskimo, [>]
Darwin, Charles: natural selection, [>]; writings on coral, [>], [>]; writings on the Galápagos Islands, [>]–[>]
DDT, [>]
death: afterlife, [>]–[>]; feigning (“playing possum”), [>], [>], [>]; relationship with life, [>]; See also beliefs; burial practices, human
decomposition: increased rate with warmer temperature, [>]–[>]; increased temperature of carcass with, [>]; seasonality, [>], [>]
deer: calcium from gnawing bones, [>]; fate of carcasses, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]; food sources, [>]; hunted by humans, [>]; tormented by deer flies, [>]
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): and evolution, [>], [>]; mitochondrial, [>]; overview, [>]; transfer between organisms, [>]
Dethier, Vincent, [>]
diamond, [>]–[>]
Diary of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle (1831–1836) (Darwin), [>]–[>]
diatom, [>]
diatomaceous earth, [>]
diclofenac, [>]
dioxin, [>]
disposal practices, human. See burial practices
DNA. See deoxyribonucleic acid
dodo, [>]
Douglas fir, [>]
drongo, [>]
ducks: mallard, [>]; merganser, [>]; wood, [>]
dung beetles: creation and burial of dung balls, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]; description, [>]–[>], [>]; ecological role, [>]–[>]; Egyptian beliefs, [>], [>]–[>]; elephant (see Heliocopris dilloni); introduced to Australia, [>]–[>]; life cycle, [>], [>]–[>], [>]; mating and reproductive behavior, [>], [>], [>]; predators, [>], [>]; sound of approach, [>]; See also Scarabaeus laevistriatus
Dynastes (South American Hercules beetle), [>], [>]; hercules (South American rhinoceros beetle), [>]
eagles: bald, [>], [>], [>]; beliefs about, [>], [>]; golden, [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>]; See also Gypaetus barbatus
early humans: art, [>], [>]; cooperation and communication, [>]–[>]; culture, [>], [>]–[>]; ecological role, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; hunting, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]; pre- (see australopithecine); tools used by (see hunting tools; tools used by humans); use of fire, [>]; See also Homo
ecological roles: animals, [>]–[>]; decomposers, [>], [>]–[>], [>] (see also bacteria; fungi); dung beetles, [>]–[>]; humans, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; plants, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]; salmon, [>]–[>]; scavengers, [>]–[>], [>]; See also specialization
ecology: feeding strategies, [>]–[>]; impact of extinction, [>]; species diversity, [>]; See also ecological roles; ecosystems; recycling
ecosystems: coral reef, [>], [>]–[>]; created by downed tree, [>]–[>]; deep ocean, [>]–[>], [>]–[>];
earth, links and connections, [>]–[>], [>], [>]; forest, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; soil, [>]–[>]
Edmeades, Baz, [>], [>], [>]
eel, engulfer, [>]–[>]
Egyptians, ancient, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
Einstein, Albert, [>]
elephant bird, [>]
elephants: African, [>]–[>], [>]; Asian, [>]; coevolution with humans, [>], [>]–[>]; dung of, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>] (see also dung beetles); evolution into herds, [>]; extinction, [>]; gut organisms, [>]; as herbivores, [>], [>]; hunted by humans, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]; scavenging by humans, [>]; seed dispersal by, [>]; size, [>]; vocalization, [>]
elk: cached by the author, [>]; fate of carcass, [>]; hunted by humans, [>], [>], [>]; predation by wolves, [>]
Emiliania huxleyi (coccolith; Ehux), [>]
endangered species: Andean condor, [>], [>]; barn owl, [>]; burying beetle, [>]–[>]; California condor, [>]–[>]; captive rearing and release, [>]–[>], [>]; white-rumped vulture, [>]
energetics: bees, [>]; brain, [>]; coal, [>], [>]; dung beetles, [>], [>]; elephants, [>]; mitochondria, [>]; ravens, [>]
environmental issues: accountability for pollution, [>]; coral reef decline, [>]–[>]; cremation, [>]; DDT, [>]; deliberate poisoning, [>], [>]; diclofenac, [>]; dioxins, [>]; formaldehyde, [>], [>]; furans, [>]; global warming, [>], [>]; habitat creation, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]; habitat destruction, [>], [>], [>]–[>]; lead, [>]; mercury, [>]; pesticides, [>], [>], [>]; rodenticides, [>]; thallium sulfate, [>]; traditional burial, [>]–[>]
escape or survival strategies: bioluminescence, [>]; coloration for camouflage, [>], [>]; coloration to mimic another animal, [>]–[>]; fear of predators, [>]–[>]; hiding, [>]; “playing possum,” [>], [>], [>]; secretions which hide location, [>]; smelly compounds, [>]; sticky compounds, [>]
Estes, Richard, [>]
ethanethiol (ethyl mercaptan), [>]
Euglena gracilis (protozoa), [>]
evolution: adaptations to dark deepwater ocean, [>]–[>]; chloroplast, [>], [>], [>]; coevolution of elephant with humans, [>], [>]–[>]; convergent, [>]–[>]; developmental stages which trace, [>], [>]–[>]; effects of increased body size, [>]–[>], [>]; human (see human evolution); insects, [>], [>]–[>]; metamorphosis, [>]; mitochondria, [>], [>], [>]; natural selection, [>], [>]; salmon, [>]–[>]; sexual selection, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]; survival of the fittest, [>]–[>]; termite, [>]; tree, [>]–[>]; vulture, [>]–[>]; whale, [>]
exotic species, [>]
extinction: caused by Cretaceous asteroid impact, [>]; caused by humans, [>], [>], [>]–[>]; dire wolf, [>]; dodo, [>]; ecological impact, [>]; elephant, [>]; elephant bird, [>]; Eskimo curlew, [>]; giant sloth, [>], [>]; giant tortoise, [>]; great auk, [>]; mammoth, [>], [>], [>]; mastodon, [>]; megafauna in Africa, [>]; moa, [>]; passenger pigeon, [>]; pterosaur, [>], [>]; saber-toothed cat, [>]
falcons: peregrine, [>]; South American caracara, [>]
fangooth, [>]
feathers: beetles which eat, [>]; effects of temperature on color, [>]; used in ritual dances, [>]; vultures with naked head and neck, [>]
feeding strategies, [>]–[>]
fir, [>]. See also balsam fir; Douglas fir
fish: adaptations to deepwater ocean, [>], [>]; as oceanic scavengers, [>], [>]; tree roots or downed trees as habitat, [>]–[>]
fisher (bird), [>]
fisher (mustelid), [>], [>]
Fisher, James, [>]–[>]
flies: bush (see Musca vetustissima); deer, [>]–[>]; eggs (see fly eggs); green blowfly (see Lucilia); maggots, [>], [>], [>]; midges or gnats, [>], [>]; muscid, [>]; pupae as food source for other animals, [>]; sense of smell, [>], [>]; true, metamorphosis, [>]
flycatcher, crested, [>]
fly eggs: consumed by mites, [>], [>]; deposited in dead animal, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]; number per clutch, [>]
flytrap, Venus, [>]
Fomes fomentarius (hoof fungus; tinder polypore), [>]–[>]
foraminifera. See Globigerina
forensics, estimation of time of death, [>]–[>], [>], [>]
forest industry: ecological considerations, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]; impact of traditional burials, [>]–[>]; lignin as a waste product, [>]; tree plantations, [>]
formaldehyde, [>], [>]
fox, [>], [>]
frass, [>]–[>], [>], [>]–[>]
frog, [>]
Frost, Robert, [>], [>], [>], [>]
funeral practices. See burial practices
fungi: antibiotics from, [>], [>]; beetles which feed on, [>]; birch polypore, [>]; black brain, [>]; brown-rot and white-rot, [>]; chicken-of-the-woods (see Laetiporus sulphureus); cinnabar polypore, [>]; decomposition of downed tree, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; ecological role, [>], [>]; edible, [>], [>]; false tinder mushroom (see Phellinus igniarius); green stain, [>]; hen-of-the-woods (see Grifola frondosa); honey mushroom (see Armillaria mellea); hoof fungus (see Fomes fomentarius); introduced into tree by insects, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; neutralization of toxins by, [>]; oyster mushroom (see Pleurotus ostreatus); parchment (see Stereum rugosum); reproduction, [>]–[>]; shiitake mushroom (see Lentinula edodes); soil creation by, [>], [>]; staghorn, [>]; sulfur shelf (see Laetiporus sulphureus); tinder polypore (see Fomes fomentarius); turkey-tail (see Trametes versicolor)
fur, beetles which eat, [>]
furan, [>]
Galápagos Islands, [>], [>]–[>]
genetics: DNA, [>], [>], [>]; of metamorphosis, [>]–[>]; transfer of genetic material, [>], [>]
Gibran, Kahlil, [>]
Giraffa camelopardalis (reticulated giraffe): and early man, [>]; fate of carcass, [>], [>]–[>]; predation by lions, [>]; recycling of waste products, [>]
giraffe, reticulated. See Giraffa camelopardalis
global warming, [>], [>], [>]
Globigerina (foraminifera), [>]–[>]
glyptodon, [>]
gods and goddesses, [>]–[>], [>]
Goliath (raven), [>]–[>], [>]
Goliathus giganteus (African Goliath beetle), [>], [>]
Gould, “Lefty,” [>]–[>], [>]
grasshopper, [>]
Grifola frondosa (hen-of-the-woods), [>], [>]
gristle, beetles which eat, [>]
guinea fowl, [>]
gull, [>], [>]
Guthrie, R. Dale, [>]
Gypaetus barbatus (bearded vulture), [>], [>]
Gyps: bengalensis (white-rumped vulture), [>]–[>]; fulvus (griffon vulture), [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]; indicus (Indian vulture), [>]; tenuirostris (slender-billed vulture), [>]
habitat creation, [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]
habitat destruction, [>], [>], [>]–[>]
Haeckel, Ernst, [>]–[>]
hagfish, [>], [>]
Haldane, J. B. S., [>]
Harmon, Mark E., [>]
Hatzegopteryx (pterosaur), [>]
Hawking, Stephen W., [>]
hawks: evolution, [>]; sparrow (American kestrel), [>]
Heinrich, Bernd: beliefs, [>]–[>], [>], [>]; camp and cabin in Maine, [>], [>]; family immigration to America, [>]; family interest in insects, [>], [>]; father, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]; funeral preferences, [>]; home in Vermont, [>], [>], [>]; hunting and scavenging, [>]–[>], [>], [>]; insect flight research, [>], [>]; mentors, [>]–[>]; nephew Charlie, [>], [>]; sister Marianne, [>]; son Stuart, [>]; as a student, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>]; as a teacher, [>]–[>], [>], [>]
Heliocopris dilloni (elephant dung beetle), [>]; description, [>], [>], [>]–[>]; flight, [>]
Hemaris sp. (hummingbird sphinx moth), [>], [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
herbivores: evolution and body size, [>]–[>], [>]; food sources, [>]; seasonal, [>]
hippopotamus, [>], [>]
Homo: erectus, [>], [>], [>]–[>]; heidelbergensis, [>]; See also early humans; human evolution; humans
Hoplogonus bornemisszai (stag beetle), [>]
hornbill, [>], [>]
hornet, white-faced, [>]
hor
ses: fate of carcasses, [>], [>]; hunted by humans, [>], [>]
Houdi (raven), [>]
Hugo (pet dog), [>]
human evolution: bipedalism, [>]–[>]; coevolution of elephant with, [>], [>]–[>]; culture, [>]–[>], [>], [>], [>]; hominid emigration from Africa, [>], [>]; Homo erectus, [>], [>]; as hunters, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; as scavengers and predators, [>]–[>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]
humans: beliefs, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]; brain and intelligence, [>], [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]; burial practices (see burial practices, human); decision-making capability, [>]; developmental biology, [>]; early (see early humans); evolution (see human evolution); extinctions caused by, [>]–[>]; hunting of predators of livestock, [>]; population growth, [>], [>]; recycling of waste products, [>]; See also Homo
hummingbirds: bumblebee hummer, [>]; description, [>]–[>]; number of species, [>]; ruby-throat, [>]; See also Kolibris
humus, [>], [>]
hunting tools: amentum, [>]; atlatl, [>]; and bipedalism, [>]–[>]; bow and arrow, [>], [>]; gun, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>], [>]; poisoned arrows, [>]; rock and stone, [>]–[>]; slingshot, [>]; spear, [>], [>], [>], [>]–[>]
Huxley, Thomas Henry, [>], [>], [>]
hydrogen sulfide, [>]
hyenas: extinction, [>]; recycling of waste products, [>], [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>], [>]
imaginal disks, [>]
Indian cultures, [>]–[>], [>]–[>]
insects: bacteria introduced into tree by, [>]–[>], [>]; colonization of downed tree, [>]; evolution, [>], [>]–[>]; flight, [>]; fungi introduced into tree by, [>], [>]–[>], [>], [>]
International Union for Conservation of Nature, [>]
jackals: recycling of waste products, [>], [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>], [>]
jays: blue, [>]; salmon as food source, [>]; in sequence of undertakers, [>]
jellyfish, [>]
juneberry (serviceberry), [>]
Kalm, Peter, [>]
Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska, [>]
Kenya: archaeological site, [>]; baboons at Amboseli National Park, [>]; dung beetles at Tsavo National Park, [>], [>], [>]; wild game, [>]
kestrels: American, [>]; to control rodents, [>
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