75. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 316.
76. Ibid., p. 308.
77. Ibid., p. 320.
78. Ibid., p. 322.
79. Ibid., p. 329.
80. Goddard, “Diary, July 25–26, 1919,” “Diary, August 20–21, 1919,” and “Diary, January 16, 1920.”
81. David Clary’s Rocket Man has provided the most thorough account of Goddard’s need for patrons and his patronage relationships.
82. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 393.
83. Ibid.
84. “S’pose Prof. Goddard’s Rocket Does Hit Moon,” New Haven Register, January 13, 1920; “Great Scheme, Beats Soviet Ark and Note Writing for Getting Rid of Things,” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 13, 1920; “If It Hits the Moon We’ll Get Moonshine Back,” New York Evening Journal, January 13, 1920—all in Goddard Digital Collection, Robert Hutching Goddard Library, Clark University, Worcester, MA.
85. “Atmosphere Edge Conditions to Be Studied by Rocket,” Newark News, January 12, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
86. “Sims Thinks Rocket Can Be Shot to Moon,” Rochester Post Express, January 16, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
87. “Off the Earth,” St. Louis Star, January 16, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
88. “Not a Moon Rocket,” Pittsburgh Dispatch, January 17, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
89. Collins, T., The Legendary Model T Ford: The Ultimate History of America’s First Great Automobile (Iola, WI, 2007), p. 88.
90. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 410.
91. Ibid., p. 409.
92. “Photographing the Moon,” Baltimore News, January 21, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
93. “Wants Pay Passenger for Voyage to Moon,” Newark Star Eagle, January 31, 1921, Goddard Digital Collection.
94. “Chance to Invest,” Bridgeport Telegram, January 28, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
95. Ibid.
96. Astor, J. J., A Journey in Other Worlds (New York, 1894).
97. Shaw, A., ed., “A Journey in Other Worlds,” Review of Reviews 9 (January–June, 1894), p. 753. For a more critical and amusing review from Boston, see Anonymous, “A Journey in Other Worlds,” Literary World 25, no. 10 (1894), p. 149.
98. “Proposes to Leap to Mars,” Boston Herald, February 5, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
99. “Four Seek Trip to Mars,” New York Times, February 9, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
100. Lehman, This High Man, pp. 109–112.
101. “That Flight to Planet Mars,” Spokesman Review, February 25, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
102. Clary, Rocket Man, pp. 92–97.
103. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 71.
104. This was the Dearborn Observatory. For more on its history, see chapter 2.
105. “Seek Moon Trip Fund in Chicago,” Chicago Herald, April 3, 1920, and “Chicago Is Ready to Push Rocket to Moon,” Boston Globe, April 11, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
106. “Windy City Capitalists May Finance Work on Rocket to Reach Moon,” Worcester Sunday Telegram, April 11, 1920, and “Chicago Is Ready to Push Rocket to Moon,” Boston Globe, April 11, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
107. “If you can’t be present at dinner,” Chicago Chapter American Association of Engineers Ladies’ Night Poster, April 2, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
108. Goddard, “Diary, April 7, 1920,” and “Diary, April 14, 1920,” Goddard Digital Collection.
109. The effects of this announcement in Russia are discussed in Siddiqi, A. A., “Deep Impact”; Goddard, “Diary, April 15, 1920,” and “Diary, April 19, 1920,” Goddard Digital Collection.
110. “Goddard Rocket to Shoot in July,” Boston Herald, April 28, 1920, and “Rocket Trip to Moon Postponed to August,” Washington Times, July 15, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
111. “To Bombard the Moon,” Boston Post, January 15, 1920, and “War Rocket 200-Mile Range,” Detroit Free Press, September 5, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
112. “Only ‘Angle’ Needed for Trip to Moon,” Boston Sunday Advertiser, September 19, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
113. Winter, F., Prelude to the Space Age: The Rocket Societies 1924–1940 (Washington, DC, 1983), p. 73.
114. “Goddard’s Rocket in War,” Buffalo Inquirer, January 16, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
115. “Needs Money to Make Journey to the Moon,” Washington Times, September 20, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
116. “Only ‘Angel’ Needed for Trip to Moon,” Boston Sunday Advertiser, September 19, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
117. “That Earth-to-the-Moon Scheme,” Troy Times, October 5, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
118. “Goddard’s Rocket Is Not Practical,” Evening Gazette, December 28, 1920, Goddard Digital Collection.
119. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, pp. 471–472.
120. Ibid., p. 470.
121. “Clark to Finance Goddard’s Rocket,” Evening Gazette, undated, 1921, Goddard Digital Collection.
122. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 477.
123. Clarke, A. C., The Exploration of Space (London, 1951), p. 27.
124. From the third edition of the work. Oberth, H., Wege zu Raumschiffahrt, trans. Agence Tunisienne de Public-Relations (Washington, DC, 1970), p. 1.
125. For more on the early culture of spaceflight in Germany, see Neufeld, M., “Weimar Culture and Futuristic Technology,” Technology and Culture 31, no. 4 (1990); Essers, I., Max Valier: A Pioneer of Space Travel (Washington, DC, 1976); Winter, Prelude to the Space Age.
126. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 498.
127. Ibid., p. 519.
128. Goddard had given a talk at the annual conference of the American Association for the Advancement of Science that year in Cincinnati and had previously been pursuing a $3,000 grant from them. Ibid., pp. 521, 524, 528.
129. Bush, V., Frederick Gardner Cottrell: 1877–1948 (Washington, DC, 1952).
130. Ibid., pp. 1–2.
131. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 1, p. 524.
132. Ibid., p. 543.
133. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 580.
134. Ibid.
135. Ibid., p. 591.
136. Ibid., p. 596.
137. Ibid., pp. 596, 627.
138. Ibid., pp. 658–659.
139. Ibid., pp. 636, 644.
140. Goddard, “Memorandum at the End of 1927 Diary,” Goddard Digital Collection.
141. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, p. 648.
142. Ibid., p. 648. Buzz Aldrin contends that his father played an important role in connecting Goddard to Lindbergh. Although the records are unclear on the matter, given his father’s extensive connections it is plausible and would be an extraordinary historical relationship if true. Keogh, J., “From Clark to the Moon,” CLARK Magazine, Fall 2001.
143. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, p. 653.
144. Ibid., p. 660.
145. Ibid., p. 665.
146. Ibid., p. 674.
147. Ibid., p. 668.
148. Ibid., p. 685.
149. Ibid., p. 659.
150. Ibid., vol. 1, p. viii. For more on the Guggenheim support of American aviation, see Cleveland, R., America Fledges Wings (New York, 1942).
151. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 142.
152. Lindbergh, C., Autobiography of Values (Evanston, 1992), p. 15.
153. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, p. 715.
154. Ibid.
155. Ibid., p. 723.
156. Ibid., pp. 723–726.
157. Ibid., p. 725.
158. Unger, I., and Unger, D., The Guggenheims: A Family History (New York, 2005), pp. 85–86, 96, 114, 118–120.
159. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, p. 744.
160. Ibid., vol. 3, pp. 1556, 1670.
161. I
bid., vol. 2, p. 789.
162. Ibid., pp. 790, 820.
163. Ibid., p. 851.
164. Ibid., pp. 844–845.
165. Ibid., pp. 846–847.
166. Ibid., p. 864.
167. Ibid., pp. 830, 849, 874.
168. Ibid., p. 992.
169. Ibid.
170. For more on the contemporary development in Germany, see Neufeld, M. J., The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming of the Ballistic Missile (New York, 1995), pp. 50–51.
171. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 174.
172. Lehman, This High Man, p. 239; Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, pp. 1006, 1028–1029, 1034–1036, 1063, 1069, and vol. 3, pp. 1128–1129, 1133, 1134, 1177, 1199, 1205–1207.
173. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 162.
174. Ibid.
175. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 2, p. 852, and vol. 3, p. 1205.
176. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 1171.
177. Ibid., pp. 1132–1133, 1171, 1176–1177.
178. Ibid., p. 1127.
179. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 189.
180. Lehman, This High Man, p. 293.
181. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 200.
182. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 1427.
183. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 173.
184. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 1409.
185. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 200.
186. Goddard, “Diary, May 24, 1937,” and “Diary, September 19, 1938,” Goddard Digital Collection; Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, pp. 1205, 1208, 1209.
187. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 1208.
188. Goddard, “Diary, March 11, 1939,” Goddard Digital Collection; Goddard, The Papers of Rocket Goddard, vol. 3, pp. 1231, 1237, 1239.
189. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 136.
190. For histories of the NACA, see Ronald, A., Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915–1958 (Washington, DC, 1985); Hansen, J., Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958 (Washington, DC, 1987).
191. Goddard, “Diary, May 24, 1937,” Goddard Digital Collection.
192. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 1079.
193. Ibid., pp. 1083, 1130, 1223.
194. Ibid., pp. 1108, 1216.
195. Ibid., p. 1396.
196. Ibid., pp. 1397–1403, 1406–1407.
197. Although Goddard’s team built a functional liquid-fuel JATO, its utility paled in comparison to the solid-fuel JATO that the GALCIT group had developed. Ibid., pp. 1432–1433.
198. Ibid., p. 1502.
199. Rhodes, R., “The Ordeal of Robert Hutchings Goddard: ‘God Pity a One-Dream Man,’ ” American Heritage 31, no. 4 (1980), pp. 25–32.
200. Clary, Rocket Man, p. 201.
201. Goddard later recouped these expenditures and repaid the $10,000 Guggenheim loan during the period of his contract. Goddard, The Papers of Robert Goddard, vol. 3, p. 1440.
202. Ibid., p. 1475.
203. It is worth noting here that although Goddard expended significant time and resources on his patents, they never played a significant economic role in his career. Indeed, he was wholly unaware of the storied history his most lucrative patent—his vacuum-tube radio oscillator—had enjoyed in lawsuit challenges to RCA until Arthur Collins approached him as part of his lawsuit with the radio giant. For these reasons, I support the proposition put forward by both Lehman and Clary that Goddard’s extensive patenting was largely a result of his ego and concern for establishing priority.
204. Neufeld, M., Von Braun: Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War (New York, 2008), p. 54.
4. In the Eyes of the World
1. For a historiography of American spaceflight, see Siddiqi, A. A., “American Space History: Legacies, Questions, and Opportunities for Further Research,” in Critical Issues in Spaceflight, ed. S. J. Dick and R. Launius (Washington, DC, 2006), pp. 433–480; Johnson, S., “The History and Historiography of National Security Space,” in ibid., pp. 481–548.
2. Van Dyke, V., Pride and Power: The Rationale of the Space Program (Urbana, 1964).
3. McDougall, W. A., The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York, 1985); Logsdon, J. M., John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon (New York, 2010).
4. President’s Science Advisory Committee, Introduction to Outer Space (Washington, DC, 1958).
5. Emme, E., The Impact of Air Power: National Security and World Politics (Princeton, 1959), p. 844.
6. U.S. Congress, House Select Comm. on Astronautics and Space Exploration, The United States and Outer Space, H.R. Rep. No. 2710, 85th Cong., 2d sess. (1959), p. 6.
7. Congressional Record 107, no. 96 (June 8, 1961), p. 9174.
8. Office of the President, Aeronautics and Space Report of the President: Fiscal Year 2012 Activities (Washington, DC, 2012), http://history.nasa.gov/presrep2012.pdf, p. 145.
9. Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 42.
10. Medaris J., Countdown for Decision (New York, 1960).
11. Bilstein, R., Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles (Washington, DC, 1996), p. 41.
12. U.S. Congress, Senate Comm. on Armed Services, Military Procurement Authorization for Fiscal Year 1964, Hearings, 88th Cong., 1st sess. (1963), p. 152.
13. U.S. Congress, House Comm. on Science and Astronautics, Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight, 1964 NASA Authorization, pt. 2(a), Hearings, 88th Cong., 1st sess. (1963), p. 424.
14. Webb, J., and R. McNamara, “Recommendations for Our National Space Program: Changes, Policies, Goals,” May 8, 1961, in Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, vol. 7 (Washington, DC, 2008), p. 492.
15. U.S. Congress, House Select Comm. on Astronautics and Space Exploration, Astronautics and Space Exploration, Hearings, 85th Cong., 2nd sess. (1958), p. 776.
16. For DuBridge’s views five years later, see U.S. Congress, Senate Comm. on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, Scientists’ Testimony on Space Goals, Hearings, 88th Cong., 1st sess. (1963).
17. Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 87.
18. Congressional Record 108, no. 24 (February 20, 1962), p. 2391.
19. Rechtin, E., “What’s the Use of Racing for Space?” Air Force/Space Digest 44 (October 1961), p. 51.
20. Studies of the politics of science in America and elsewhere have been numerous. For especially well researched works, see Gilpin, R., and Wright, C., Scientists and National Policy-Making (New York, 1964); Dupree, A. H., Science in the Federal Government (Baltimore, 1985); Kealey, T., The Economic Laws of Scientific Research (London, 1997); Greenberg, D. S., The Politics of Pure Science (Chicago, 1999).
21. Divine, R., The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower’s Response to the Soviet Satellite (Oxford, 1993).
22. Knorr, K., “On the International Implications of Outer Space,” World Politics 12, no. 4 (July 1960), p. 578.
23. Alston, G., “International Prestige and the American Space Programme” (Ph.D. diss., University of Oxford, 1990).
24. Online Etymology Dictionary, “prestige,” http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=PRESTIGE, accessed May 16, 2011.
25. Oliver, F. S., The Endless Adventure, vol. 2 (London, 1931), pp. 123–124.
26. Carr, E. H., Great Britain as a Mediterranean Power (Nottingham, 1937), p. 10.
27. Shimbori, M., Ikeda, H., Ishida, T., and Kondo, M., “An Attempt to Construct a National Prestige Index,” Indian Journal of Social Research 3, no. 1 (1961), p. 25.
28. Morgentau, H., Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York, 1948), pp. 77–78; Alston, “International Prestige and the American Space Programme,” p. 17.
29. Berkner, L. V., “Space Research—A Permanent Peacetime Activity,” in Peacetime Uses of Outer Space, ed. S. Ramo (New York, 1961), pp. 1–16.
30. Bartos, A., Kosmos: A Portrait of the Russian Sp
ace Age (Princeton, 2001), p. 92.
31. McDougall, W. A., The Heavens and the Earth, pp. 244–249.
32. Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 260.
33. Muir-Harmony, T., “Friendship 7’s ‘Fourth Orbit,’ ” 2012, http://blog.nasm.si.edu/space/friendship-7’s-‘fourth-orbit’/.
34. Offer, A., “Lecture Notes on Economic and Social History,” Michaelmas term, University of Oxford, 2011.
35. Spence, M., “Informational Aspects of Market Structure: An Introduction,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 90, no. 4 (November 1976), p. 592.
36. Douglas Aircraft Company, Inc., “Preliminary Design for an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship,” RAND Corporation Rep. No. SM-11827, May 2 (Santa Monica, 1946), p. 2.
37. RAND, RAND: 25th Anniversary Volume (Santa Monica, 1973), p. 7.
38. Douglas Aircraft., “Preliminary Design for an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship,” p. 219.
39. Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 13.
40. Grosse, A., “Report on the Present Status of the Satellite Problem,” August 25, 1953, in Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, vol. 1 (Washington, DC, 1995), p. 268.
41. U.S. Congress, Senate Comm. on Armed Services, Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee, The United States Guided Missile Program, 86th Cong., 1st sess. (1959), p. 99; Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 11.
42. The Vanguard program was expected to cost $20 million–$30 million, a nontrivial $846 million–$1.27 billion in 2015 relative GDP-ratio adjusted equivalent value. It ended up costing $110 million. Portree, D., NASA’s Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age (Washington, DC, 1998).
43. Bille, M., and Lishock, E., The First Space Race: Launching the World’s First Satellites (College Station, 2004), p. 107.
44. Baker, D., The Rocket: The History and Development of Rocket & Missile Technology (New York, 1978), p. 133.
45. The psychology concepts of loss aversion and status-quo bias can be helpful in interpreting the decision-making dynamics of this period. See Kahneman, D., and Tversky, A., “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk,” Econometrica 47 (1990), pp. 263–291, and Samuelson, W., and Zeckhauser, R. J., “Status Quo Bias in Decision Making,” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 1 (1988), pp. 7–59.
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