by James Walvin
34 Alex Wilkins, Big Sugar – Seasons in the Cane Fields of Florida, New York, 1989, p. 49
35 Dexter Filkins, ‘Swamped’, in The New Yorker, 4 January 2016
36 36 Gail M. Hollander, Raising Cane, pp. 42–46
12 – A Sweeter War and Peace
1 Avner Offer, The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation, Oxford, 1984, p. 297
2 L. D. Schwarz, London in the Age of Industrialisation, Cambridge, 1992, p. 41
3 G. N. Johnson, ‘The Growth of the Sugar Trade and Refining Industry’, in D. Oddy and D. S. Miller, eds, The Making of the Modern British Diet, London, 1975, Ch. 5
4 Henry Weatherley, Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, 1864
5 George Dodd, The Food of London, London, 1856, p. 428
6 Ben Fine, Michael Heasman and Judith Wright, Consumption in the Age of Affluence: The World of Food, London 1996, p. 96
7 Avner Offer, The First World War, p. 39
8 Avner Offer, The First World War, pp. 39, 168
9 G. N. Johnson, ‘The Growth of the Sugar Trade and Refining Industry’, D. Oddy and D. S. Miller, eds., The Making of the Modern British Diet, pp. 60–61
10 Ben Fine, et al., Consumption, pp. 94–95
11 Ben Fine, et al., Consumption, p. 99
12 Peter Mathias, Retailing Revolution, London, 1967, p. 56
13 Stuart ‘Thorpe, The History of Food Preservation, Kirby Lonsdale, 1986, p. 152; Sue Shepherd, Pickled, Potted and Canned– The Story of Food Preserving, London, 2000, p. 164
14 Peter Mathias, Retailing Revolution, pp. 103–104
15 Helen Franklin, ‘As Good as Five Shillings a Week – Poor Dental Health and the Establishment of Dental Provision for Schoolchildren in Edwardian England’, MA thesis, University of London [Wellcome Library], pp. 15–17, Thomas Oliver, ‘Our Workmen’s Diet and Wages’, The Fortnightly Review, vol. 56, October 1899, p. 519
16 Ben Fine, et al., Consumption, pp. 100–101
17 James Walvin, The Quakers, Ch. 10
18 Helen Franklin, ‘As Good as Five Shillings a Week . . .’, pp. 15–17; Ben Fine et at., Consumption . . ., pp. 99–101
19 Ben Fine et ai, Consumption . . ., pp. 101–102
20 G. N. Johnson, ‘The Growth of the Sugar Trade and Refining Industry’, D. Oddy and D. S. Miller, eds, The Making of the Modem British Diet, p. 60
21 L. Margaret Barnett, British Food Policy During the First World War, London, 1985, pp. 30–31
22 L. Margaret Barnett, British Food Policy . . ., p. 138
23 Ben Fine, et at., Consumption . . ., p. 96
24 Robert Graves, Goodbye to All That, London, 2000 edn, p. 82
25 Ben Fine, et ai, Consumption . . ., p. 102
26 Ben Fine, et al, Consumption . . ., pp. 101–103
27 Ben Fine, et ai, Consumption. . ., pp. 103–104
28 B. Kathleen Hey, The View from the Corner Shop – The Diary of a Yorkshire Shop Assistant in Wartime, Patricia and Robert Malcolmson, eds, London, 2016, p. 119
29 Ben Fine, et al., Consumption . . ., pp. 122–123
30 Ron Noon, ‘Goodbye, Mr Cube, History Today, Vol, 51, No. 10, October 2007
31 Ben Fine, et ai, Consumption . . ., pp. 103–104
13 – Obesity Matters
1 Iona and Peter Opie, The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren, Oxford, 1959, pp. 167–169; Francis Delpeuch and others, Globesity: a Planet out of Control?, London, 2009, p. 30
2 For a general discussion, see David Haslam and Fiona Haslam, Fat, Gluttony13 and Sloth: Obesity in Medicine, Art and Literature, Liverpool, 2009 .
3 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 43–44
4 David Lewis and Margeret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. xv
5 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. xi. For a recent scholarly study of the problem, see Insecurity, Inequality, and Obesity in Affluent Societies, edited by Avner Offer, Rachel Pechey, Stanley Ulijaszek, Proceedings of the British Academy, 174, Oxford, 2012
6 ‘NHS spending millions on larger equipment for obese patients’, Guardian, 24 October 2015
7 Cathy Newman, ‘Why are we so fat?’ National Geographic, nationalgeographic.com/science/health. Accessed 27 July 2016
8 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. xii
9 Four Decade Study: ‘Americans Taller, Fatter, by Live Science Staff, 27 October 2004, www/livescience.com; accessed 28 July 2016
10 George Vigarello, The Metamorphoses of Fat – a History of Obesity, Columbia University Press, 2013, p. 186
11 Nana Bro Folman et ai, ‘Obesity, hospital service use and costs’, in Kristian Bolin and John Cawley, eds, The Economics of Obesity, Amsterdam, 2007, p. 329; ‘Americans are still Getting Fatter’, Vice News: www//news.vice.co/article; accessed 28 July 2016; Tyler Durden, ‘Americans Have Never Been Fatter’, ‘Healthcare costs attributable to Obesity’, Zero hedge, www zerohedge.com; accessed 28 July 2016
12 Julie Lumeng, ‘Development of Eating Behaviour,’ in Obesity: Causes, Mechanisms, Prevention, and Treatment, Elliott M. Blass, ed., Sunderland, MA, 2008
13 ‘How Americans Got Fat’, in charts, www.bloomberg.com/news/ articles 2016; accessed 28 July 2016
14 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us, London, 2014, p. 22
15 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, p. 10; David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, pp. xii-xiii
16 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, pp. xii-xiii
17 George Vigarello, The Metamorphosis of Fat . . ., p. 186
18 ‘NHS Choices: Your Health, Your Choices’, www.nhs.uk/ Liveweight; accessed 28 June 2016
19 Foresight; ‘Tackling Obesity: Future Choices’, Project Report, London, 2007, p. 5
20 The Guardian, 23 October 2015
21 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, Chapter 1
22 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. xiv
23 David Crawford and Robert W. Jeffery, Obesity Prevention and Public Health, Oxford, 2015, pp. 17, 212
24 David Crawford and Robert W. Jeffery, Obesity Prevention and Public Health, pp. 17, 212
25 Michael Gard and Jan Wright, The Obesity Epidemic: Science, Morality and Ideology, London, 2005, pp. 3–6. This book comes close to arguing that obesity is a moral panic.
26 More recently, however, there seems to have been a levelling-off of Western childhood obesity – though the problem persists among low-income groups. Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 13–14
27 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 15–16
28 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 15–16
29 Jeffrey P. Koplin, Catheryn T. Liverman, Vivica I Kraak, eds, Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health in the Balance, Washington, DC, 2005, pp. xiii, 21–22, 73
30 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 22–23
31 David Crawford and Robert W. Jeffery, Obesity Prevention and Public Health, pp. 15–16
32 Naveed Sattar and Mike Lean, eds, ABC of Obesity, BMJ Books, Blackwell, Oxford, 2007, p. 38
33 ‘The Junk Food Toll’, the Guardian, 8 October 2016
34 Julie Lumeng, ‘Development of Eating Behaviour . . .’ in Elliott M. Blass, ed, Obesity, p. 163
35 ‘The State of Children’s Oral Health in England’, January 2015, Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons
36 ‘The State of Children’s Oral Health in England’, January 2015, Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, pp. 3–5
37 ‘The State of Children’s Oral Health in England’, January 2015, Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, pp. 5–6
38 ‘The State of Children’s Oral Health in England’, January 2015, Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, p. 4
39 ‘The State of Children’s Oral Health in England’, January 2015, Faculty of Dental Surgery, Royal College of Surgeons, p. 7
40 Haroon Siddique, ‘Children eating equivalent of 5,500 sugar lumps a year’, the Guardian, 4 January 2016
41 Frances M. Berg, Underage and Overweight, Ne
w York, 2005, p. 102
42 ‘Sugars and tooth decay’, www.actiononsugar.org; accessed 28 August 2016
43 ‘Which foods and drinks containing sugar cause tooth decay?’ NHS Choices, Your Health, Your Choice, www.nhs.uk/which-foods-and-drinks; accessed 28 August 2016
44 NHS Choices, www.nhs/news/2015/03March; accessed 13 January 2015
45 Hilary Lawrence, Not on the Label: What Really Goes into Food on Your Plate, London, 2004, pp. 220–223
46 Shauna Harrison, Darcy A. Thompson, Dina L. G. Borzekowski, ‘Environmental Food Messages . . .’, Chapter 12, in Elliott M. Blass, ed., Obesity pp. 372–392
47 Bee Wilson, First Bite – How We Learn to Eat, London, 2015, pp.86–89
48 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 23–26
49 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 1–3
14 – The Way We Eat Now
1 Barry Popkin, The World is Fat, New York, 2009, p. 30
2 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, p. 11
3 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, p. 15
4 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 63–64
5 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 70–71
6 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 5 5–56
7 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp.72–74
8 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 80–82
9 Felicity Lawrence, Not on the Label, p. 268
10 The Wall Street Journal, 29 July 2015
11 Felicity Lawrence, Not on the Label, pp. 268–269
12 Quoted in Felicity Lawrence, Not on the Label, p. 273
13 Derek Oddy and Alain Drouard, eds., The Food Industries of Europe in the ipth and20th Centuries, Farnham, 2013, p. 5
14 Derek Oddy and Alain Drouard, eds, The Food Industries of Europe pp. 240–245
15 This issue is well explained in Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat.
16 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, p. xxvi
17 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, pp. 210, 53
18 Quoted in David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. 210
19 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 10–11
20 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, p. 11
21 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, Chapter 7
22 ‘How the Sugar Industry Shifted Blame to Fat’, New York Times, 12 September 2016
23 The most prominent victim was John Yudkin and his pioneering book, Pure, White and Deadly, London, 1972
24 Alice P. Julier, ‘Meals’, in Anne Murcott, Warren Bell, Peter Jackson, eds, The Handbook of Food Research, London, 2013
25 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, 2009, p. 37
26 Francis Delpeuch, Globesity, pp. 37–38
27 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, p. 246
28 Isabelle Lescent Giles ‘The Rise of Supermarkets in 20th Century Britain and France’, in Land, Shops and Kitchen, Carmen Sarasua, Peter Schollier and Leen Van Molle, eds, Turnhout, Belgium, 2005, Ch. 10
29 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. 215
30 Louise O. Fresco, Hamburgers in Paradise: the Stories Behind the Food We Eat, Princeton, 2016, pp. 325–328
31 David Lewis and Margaret Leitch, Fat Planet, p. 202
32 Neil Pennington and Charles W. Baker, eds, Sugar – A User’s Guide to Sucrose, New York, 1990, p. 103
33 Neil Pennington and Charles W. Baker, eds, Sugar, pp. 165, 171, 177
15 – Hard Truth About Soft Drinks
1 Colin Emmins, ‘Soft Drinks’, in Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas, eds, The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000, vol. I, pp. 702–711
2 Andrew Coe, ‘Soft Drinks’, in The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, Andrew F. Smith, ed., New York, 2007, p. 546
3 Andrew Coe, ‘Soft Drinks’, in The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, Andrew F. Smith, p. 54
4 Andrew Coe ‘Soft Drinks’ in The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink, Andrew F. Smith, ed., p. 546
5 Joseph E. McCann, Sweet Success: How NutraSweet Created a Billion Dollar Business, Illinois, 1990, p. 80
6 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke – The Making of the Coca-Cola Capitalism, New York, 2010, pp. 76–77
7 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 85–87
8 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 100–101
9 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 105–106
10 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 106–107
11 Mark Prendergast, For God, Country and Coca-Cola: The Unauthorized History of the Great North American Soft Drink and the Company that Makes It, New York, 1993, pp. 199, 203–204
12 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 158–159, 207
13 Letters quoted are reprinted in Mark Prendergast, For God and Country, pp. 210–213
14 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 168–169
15 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 169–179
16 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 186–192
17 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 178–179
18 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 181–182
19 ‘How the business of bottled water went mad’, the Guardian, 6 October 2016
20 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 263–264
21 Erik Millstone and Tim Lang, The Atlas of Food, Brighton, 2008 edn., p. 91; Joseph E. McCann, Sweet Success
22 ‘Corn Syrup’, The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets, p. 189; Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 267–269
23 Andrew I. Smith, Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food, Westport, 2008, pp. 259–260
24 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., p. 270
25 For a precise analysis of these trends, see John Komlos and Marek Brabec, ‘The Transition to Post-Industrial BMI Values in the United States’, Chapter 8, in Insecurity, Inequality, and Obesity in Affluent Societies, by Avner Offer, Rachel Pechey, Stanley Ulijaszek, eds, Proceedings of the British Academy, No. 174, 2012; Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 270–271
26 Bartow J. Elmore, Citizen Coke. . ., pp. 272–273
27 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 97–109
28 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 110-113
29 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 113–115
30 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 116–117
31 Michael Moss, Salt, Sugar, Fat, pp. 131–132
16 – Turning the Tide – Beyond the Sugar Tax
1 ‘The WHO calls on countries to reduce sugar intake among adults and children’, WHO Media Centre, 4 March 2015
2 Statistics and facts on Health and Fitness Clubs, www.statistics.com; accessed 28 January 2016; ‘State of the UK Fitness Industry’, report, June 2015, www.leisured.com; accessed 28 January 2015
3 Sugar Reduction: The Evidence for Action, 2015, London, p. 5
4 Sugar Reduction, p. 9
5 Avner Offer, The Challenge of Affluence: Self-Control and Wellbeing in the United States and Britain Since ipgo, Oxford, 2006
6 Sugar Reduction, p. 22
7 Sugar Reduction, p. 20
8 Sugar Reduction, p. 22
9 Sugar Reduction, p. 21
10 Sugar Reduction, p. 28
11 Revealed: high sugar content of hot drinks’, the Guardian, 17 February 2016
12 Sugar Reduction, p. 27
13 Sugar Reduction, p. 30
14 Sugar Reduction, p. 23
15 First Leader, The Times, 22 October 2015. Thereafter, major journalists continued in much the same vein.
16 David Aaronovitch, ‘We need heavy weapons to win the obesity war’, Ihe Times, 28 July 2016
17 The Daily Telegraph, 3 January 2015
18 Robert H. Lustig, The Hidden Truth about Sugar, Obesity and Disease, London, 2014
19 Sarah Knapton, ‘Sugar is as dangerous as alcohol and tobacco . . .’ The Daily Telegraph, 9 Januar 2014
20 ‘NHS Chief to introduce sugar tax in hospitals . . .’ The Guardian, 16 January 2016
21 Tina Rosenberg,
‘Mexico’s Fat Tax’, the Guardian, 3 November 2015
22 The Times, 7 January 2016
23 Coca-Cola had abandoned cane sugar for fructose corn syrup in 1980
Conclusion – Bitter-Sweet Prospects
1 J. H. Galloway, ‘Sugar’ in Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas, eds, The Cambridge World History of Food, 2 vols, vol. II, p. 446; John McQuaid, Tasty: The Art and Science of What We Eat, New York, 2015, p. 119
Acknowledgements
THE PERSONAL AND professional debts I owe for my understanding of sugar go back a very long way. I was first introduced to the history and economics of sugar in the summer of 1967 when I began work on the papers of Worthy Park Estate in Jamaica. Over the subsequent fifty years, my friends in Jamaica have always welcomed me back, providing hospitality, friendship and practical help whenever I asked. I owe special thanks to Robert and Billie Clarke, and to Peter and Joanie McConnell at Worthy Park. David and Andrea Hopwood, Oliver Clarke and Monica Ladd have been equally supportive and hospitable over the years. I hope they all realise how much their friendship and support means to me.
In those same years, I have worked on different aspects of the history of sugar in a number of libraries and archives, in Jamaica, Barbados and the United Kingdom. Though my interests often strayed into related fields – notably slavery and the slave trade – the story of sugar has remained central to much of what I have written and taught. But it was only when I came to write this book that I began fully to appreciate how much my work has been influenced by sugar.
My greatest personal debt is to my late friend Michael Craton who first persuaded me, after meeting in graduate school, to join him in what I initially thought was a speculative venture in Jamaica. The outcome was our book, A Jamaican Plantation: The History of Worthy Park, 1670–1970 (1970). Working together in Jamaica between 1967 and 1970 opened my eyes not merely to the importance of sugar and slavery, but raised serious questions about how we should view British history more broadly. Throughout, Michael was a demanding mentor, insistent on careful scholarship and, equally, on well-crafted writing. His editorial lessons helped to shape my subsequent writing career.
Gad Heuman, with whom I worked for many years as co-editor of the scholarly journal Slavery and Abolition, has been a great supporter and influence throughout – but, better still, a friend. And no one working on the Caribbean can avoid a massive debt to Barry Higman (one of the major historians of his generation) whose remarkable work, of unrivalled range and detail, influences this book throughout.