by Harper, Tim
71. Mahmud bin Mat, Tinggal kenangan: the memoirs of Dato’ Sir Mahmud bin Mat (Kuala Lumpur, 1997), pp. 271–88; Gough, Jungle was red, p. 163.
72. Tunku Abdul Rahman, As a matter of interest (Petaling Jaya, 1981), pp. 162–3.
73. Pamela Ong Siew Im, One man’s will: a portrait of Dato’ Sir Onn bin Ja’afar (Penang, 1998), pp. 170–1.
74. Anwar Abdullah, Dato Onn (Petaling Jaya, 1971), p. 111.
75. Cheah, Red star over Malaya, pp. 225–30.
76. S. Chelvasingham-MacIntyre, Through memory lane (Singapore, 1973), p. 128.
77. Rahman, As a matter of interest, pp. 160–1.
78. John Tan Boon Liang, A bamboo flower blooms (New York, 1984), pp. 215–16.
79. O. W. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore (London, 1950), pp. 74–9; Romen Bose, The end of the war: Singapore’s liberation and the aftermath of the Second World War (Singapore, 2005), pp. 2–11.
80. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore, pp. 89–93, 150.
81. Note by Lt Cdr W. E. Machin, HQ British East India Fleet, 13 September 1945, ADM1/25907, TNA.
82. S. Woodburn Kirby, The war against Japan, vol. V, The surrender of Japan (London, 1969), pp. 266–9.
83. Chin Peng, My side of history, p. 130; Alan Stripp, Codebreaker in the Far East (Oxford, 1989), p. 176.
84. Capt. G. P. Brownie, quoted in Gough, Jungle was red, p. 158.
85. R. W. Holder, Eleven months in Malaya: September 1945 to August 1946 (Kuala Lumpur, 2005), p. 24.
86. Chin Peng, My side of history, p. 129.
87. Gough, Jungle was red, p. 161.
88. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore, pp. 101–2.
89. Holder, Eleven months in Malaya, pp. 37–8.
90. Frank Gibney (ed), Sensō: the Japanese remember the Pacific War: letters to the editor of Asahi Shimbun (London, 1995), pp. 226–7.
91. ‘Report on RAPWI in Malaya and Singapore’, 7 January 1946, BMA/ADM/2/34.
92. Arshak Catihatoer Galstaun interview, OHD, SNA.
93. A. J. F. Doulton, The Fighting Cock: being the history of the 23rd Indian Division, 1942–1947 (Aldershot, 1951), p. 222.
94. Madelaine Masson, Edwina: the biography of the Countess Mountbatten of Burma (London, 1958), p. 150.
95. Dato Haji Mohamed Yudof Bangs interview, OHD, SNA.
96. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore, p. 96.
97. Sheila Allan, Diary of a girl in Changi, 1941–45 (2nd edn., Roseville, NSW, 1999), pp. 137–47.
98. Sjovald Cunyngham-Brown, Crowded hour (London, 1975), pp. 147–9.
99. Letter to his wife, 10 September 1945, John Lowe Woods, An Irishman in Malaya (Peterhead, 1977), p. 136.
100. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore, p. 100.
101. ‘Appendix A: The psychological state of RAPWI’, Lt. Col. R. F. Tred-gold, ‘Psychiatry in ALFSEA’, March 1946, WO222/1319, TNA; Robert H. Ahrenfeldt, Psychiatry in the British army in the Second World War (London, 1950), p. 235.
102. ‘Appendix D: Talks to groups of repatriates’, Lt Col. R. F. Tredgold, ‘Psychiatry in ALFSEA’, March 1946, WO222/1319, TNA.
103. Bose, The end of the war, pp. 116–24.
104. Note by Lt Cdr W. E. Machin, HQ British East India Fleet, 13 September 1945, ADM1/25907, TNA; Low, When Singapore was Syonan-to, pp. 132–3.
105. Wong, From Pacific War to Merdeka, pp. 21–2.
106. Chelvasingham-MacIntyre, Through memory lane, pp. 128–9.
107. L. F. Pendred, Director of Intelligence, ‘The visit of Pandit Nehru to Malaya’, 30 March 1946, CO717/149/8, TNA.
108. Kevin Blackburn and Edmund Lim, ‘The Japanese war memorials of Singapore: monuments of commemoration and symbols of Japanese imperial ideology’, South East Asia Research, 7, 3 (2001), pp. 321–40; Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore, pp. 118–19.
109. Kevin Blackburn, ‘The collective memory of the sook ching massacre and the creation of the civilian war memorial of Singapore’, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 73, 2 (2000), p. 76.
CHAPTER 2 1945: THE PAINS OF VICTORY
1. T. L. Hughes to H. Stevenson, 15 August 1945, fortnightly reports f. 24, Clague Papers, Mss Eur E252/55, OIOC.
2. Slim to HQ ALFSEA, 15 May 1945, in Hugh Tinker (ed.), Burma: the struggle for independence, 1944–1948, vol. I: From military occupation to civil government, 1 January 1944 to 31 August 1946 (London, 1983), p. 250.
3. Loyal resolution by leading Burmese monks at Rangoon victory celebrations, 15 June 1945, Governor of Burma’s Papers, M/3/1736, OIOC.
4. The naming of Aung San’s forces is extremely confusing, to say the least. The Burma Independence Army (BIA) of 1941–2 became the Burma Defence Army (BDA) shortly after the Japanese invasion. On ‘independence’ in 1943 it became the Burma National Army (BNA). In July 1945, along with other armed elements, it became part of the Burma Patriotic Forces (PBF), though many of its personnel were stood down and became members of the People’s Volunteer Organizations (PVOs or, in Burmese, PYTs). To avoid alphabet soup we have continued to refer to the predominantly Burman forces of the PBF as BNA. For a comprehensive account using Burmese-language material, see, Mary P. Callahan, Making enemies: War and state building in Burma (Ithaca, 2004).
5. Maung Maung, To a soldier son (Rangoon, 1974), p. 77.
6. Ibid., p. 79.
7. Ibid., pp. 74–5.
8. ‘Twelfth Army report upon the state of civil affairs departments and conditions in Burma, 16 October 1945’, WO203/2269, TNA.
9. Rangoon Liberator, 27 September 1945, copy in Governor of Burma’s Papers, M/3/1693, OIOC.
10. Ibid.
11. Fortnightly intelligence report, civil censorship, no. 2, Burma and Malaya, 23 August 1945, R/8/41, OIOC.
12. ‘Report on the general feelings of the people in the Rangoon area’, c. July–August 1945, in fortnightly reports, Clague Papers, Mss Eur E252/55, OIOC.
13. Balwant Singh, Independence and democracy in Burma, 1945–52: the turbulent years (Ann Arbor, 1993), p. 14.
14. Gordon S. Seagrave, Burma surgeon (London, 1944), and Burma surgeon returns (London, 1946).
15. Gordon S. Seagrave, My hospital in the hills (London, 1957).
16. Ibid, p. 36.
17. Comments of Sir William Slim, SAC meeting, 5 September 1945, WO/203/5240, TNA; Angelene Naw, Aung San and the struggle for Burmese independence (Copenhagen, 2001), p. 135.
18. Naw, Aung San, p. 135.
19. Minute by S. Brooke-Wavell, RAF Public Relations Officer on Than Tun, November 1945, Tom Driberg papers, S3, 23, Christ Church, Oxford.
20. Aung Sang to Mountbatten, 25 September 1945, Dorman-Smith Papers, Mss Eur E215/14, OIOC.
21. Dorman-Smith to Leo Amery, 25 June 1945, L/PO/9/10, OIOC.
22. Maurice Collis, Last and first in Burma, 1941–48 (London, 1956), p. 243.
23. Meeting between the governor of Burma and representatives of organizations and communities in Burma, WO203/5238, TNA; Tinker, Burma, vol. I, pp. 339–40.
24. U Ba U, My Burma: the autobiography of a president (New York, 1959), pp, 176, 183.
25. ‘Victory dinner, 15 September 1945’, menu in Tom Driberg Papers, S3, 1, Christ Church, Oxford.
26. Naw, Aung San, p. 141.
27. Mountbatten to Dorman-Smith, 1 August 1944, Dorman-Smith Papers, Mss Eur E215/28, OIOC.
28. Sir R. MacDougall to Dorman-Smith, 20 October 1944, Dorman-Smith Papers, Mss Eur E215/15, OIOC.
29. Joseph Silverstein (ed.), The Political Legacy of Aung San (Ithaca, 1976); Gustaaf Houtman, Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics (Tokyo, 2002), pp. 181–9.
30. Callahan, Making enemies, pp. 109–11.
31. Aung San to Mountbatten, 25 September 1945, Dorman-Smith Papers, Mss Eur E215/28, OIOC.
32. Tom Driberg, Ruling passions (London, 1979), p. 215.
33. Driberg’s column in Reynolds News, 14 October 1945.
34. Ibid.
35. Francis Wheen, Tom Driberg: his life
and indiscretions (London, 1990), p. 216.
36. Driberg, Ruling passions, p. 216.
37. Reynolds News, 14 October 1945.
38. Extract from a letter from Tom Driberg, SEAC to Dorman-Smith, 4 October 1945, Dorman-Smith Papers, Mss Eur E215/28, OIOC.
39. A/C Allen, A. G., 346 Wing, SEAF, to Driberg, 19 December 1945, Tom Driberg Papers, S3, 5 (miscellaneous), Christ Church, Oxford.
40. Col. John Ralston, 2 Area Singapore, to Driberg, 25 November 1945, Tom Driberg Papers, S3, 1, 25, Christ Church, Oxford.
41. Kyin Hla to Driberg, 28 September 1945, Tom Driberg Papers S3, 1, 16, Christ Church, Oxford.
42. See Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten armies: Britain’s Asian empire and the war with Japan (London, 2004).
43. Montagu Stopford to Mountbatten, 26 December 1945, Mountbatten Papers (microfilm), 8, OIOC.
44. Letter of Aung San in Rangoon Liberator, 5 October 1945, Governor of Burma’s Papers, M/3/1694, OIOC.
45. Rangoon Liberator, 27 October 1945, ibid.
46. Naw, Aung San, pp. 142–9.
47. Ibid, p. 143.
48. See, e.g., ‘Karen memorial’, memorandum presented by H. N. C. Stevenson and T. L. Hughes, February 1946, FO643/39, TNA, printed in Tinker, Burma, vol. I, pp. 650–1.
49. San C. Po, Burma and the Karens (London, 1929).
50. Jonathan Falla, True love and Bartholemew: rebels on the Burmese border (Cambridge, 1991), p. 25.
51. Callahan, Making enemies, pp. 86–113.
52. Peter Clarke, The Cripps version: the life of Sir Stafford Cripps (London, 2002).
53. Lady Pethick-Lawrence to Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, 5 September 1945, Pethick-Lawrence Papers, Box 5/83, Trinity College, Cambridge.
54. Krishna Menon to Pethick-Lawrence, 31 March 1954, ibid., 5/91.
55. Pethick-Lawrence to Huxley, 29 November 1943, ibid., 5/61.
56. Nehru to Cripps, 3 December 1945, ibid., 5/64.
57. Gandhi to Pethick-Lawrence, 12 January 1946, ibid., 5/66.
58. Intelligence report quoting soldiers’ letters, no. 172, 16 February 1945, appendix A, L/WS/1/1433, OIOC.
59. Personal communication from Eric Stokes, 1979.
60. Provincial officers and Intelligence Bureau conference on INA, 19–20 November 1945, L/WS/1/1577, OIOC.
61. Appended to above, ibid.
62. Statesman, 5 October 1945.
63. W. L. Alston ‘My day and age’: this was a compilation of memoirs and contemporary letters etc., 8005–151, box 10, National Army Museum.
64. Note from Deputy Director of Military Intelligence (S), f. 112, L/WS/1/1577, OIOC.
65. Conference of provincial officers, ibid.
66. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 2 November 1945.
67. Statesman, 23 July 1947.
68. Governor of Bengal to viceroy, 22 August 1946, ‘Calcutta riots 1947’, L/P and J/8/655, OIOC.
69. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 24 October 1945.
70. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 3 November 1945.
71. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 22 November 1945.
72. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 2 November 1945.
73. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 6 November 1945.
74. Amrita Bazaar Patrika, 27 October 1945.
75. S. N. Arseculeratne, Sinhalese immigrants in Malaysia and Singapore, 1860–1990: history through recollections (Colombo, 1991), p. 337.
76. ‘INA in Siam’, WO203/2462, TNA.
77. Attachments to WO203/4673, TNA.
78. Girishchandra Kotari interview, OHD, SNA; Arseculeratne, Sinhalese immigrants, p. 338.
79. Memo, 15 October 1945, WO203/4203B, TNA.
80. Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: the viceroy’s journal (London, 1973), statement of the governor of North West Frontier Province, entry 24 November 1945, p. 188.
81. Ibid., entry 5 November 1945, p. 182.
82. V. S. Kulkarni and K. S. N. Munshi, The First Indian National Army trial (Poonah, 1946), p. i.
83. Ibid., pp. xv–xviii.
84. Ibid., p. 58.
85. Ibid. p. 47.
86. Conference of provincial officers, L/WS/1/1577, OIOC.
87. For instance, Sir Dalip Singh, K. N. Katju and J. N. Sapru; Kulkarni and Munshi, First Indian National Army trial, p. 171.
88. Moon, Wavell, p. 191.
89. D. K. Palit, Major General A. A. Rudra: his services in three armies and two world wars (Delhi, 1997), pp. 282, 284.
90. Wavell to Pethick-Lawrence, 17 October 1945, CAB119/191, TNA; Cabinet Defence Meeting, minutes of meeting on 19 October 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
91. S. K. Chettur, Malayan adventure (Mangalore, 1948), pp. 12–30.
92. Wavell to Mountbatten, 4 December 1945, WO203/4203B, TNA.
93. Malaya Command to SACSEA, 7 January 1946, WO203/4303B, TNA.
94. Chettur, Malayan adventure, pp. 31–60.
95. Mustapha Hussain, Malay nationalism before Umno: the memoirs of Mustapha Hussain, translated by Insun Mustapha and edited by Jomo K. S. (Kuala Lumpur, 2005), pp. 295–327.
96. F. S. V. Donnison, British military administration in the Far East (London, 1956), p. 304. See the discussion by Abu Talib Ahmad, The Malay Muslims, Islam and the Rising Sun: 1941–45 (Kuala Lumpur, 2003), pp. 133–6.
97. Mamoru Shinozaki, Syonan – my story: the Japanese occupation of Singapore (Singapore, 1979), p. 107.
98. Herman Marie de Souza interview, OHD, SNA.
99. Cited in Romen Bose, A will to freedom: Netaji and the Indian independence movement in Singapore and Southeast Asia, 1942–45 (Singapore, 1993), p. 49.
100. T. T. Hui to unnamed official, 8 November 1945, on NARA/XL30328, SNA.
101. Wee Kim Guan, letter, 13 May 1946, BMA HQ S.DIV/151/45, SNA.
102. Examples from New Democracy, 6 October, 1945.
CHAPTER 3 1945: A SECOND COLONIAL CONQUEST
1. Cited in Robert Pearce, Attlee (London, 1977), p. 122.
2. Ibid, p. 281.
3. Note on the paper ‘Religion in the army’ by R. Savory, 7603–93/90, National Army Museum, London.
4. Sir Donald Cameron, ‘Give an account of Thy Stewardship’, 15 May 1942, CO875/19/13, TNA.
5. Wavell cited in Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: a life (Ahmedabad, 1990)p, 433.
6. Penderel Moon (ed.), Wavell: the viceroy’s journal (London, 1973), entry for 31 August 1945, p. 170.
7. Harold Macmillan, Tides of fortune (London, 1969), p. 246, cited in Nicholas Owen, ‘The Conservative Party and Indian independence, 1945–47’, Historical Journal, 46, 2 (2003), p. 411.
8. Victor Purcell, The memoirs of a Malayan official (London, 1965), p. 293.
9. Ralph Hone to E. V. G. Day, 21 February 1945, BMA/ADM/239, ANM.
10. Chua Ai Lin, ‘Negotiating national identity: the English-speaking domiciled commmunities in Singapore, 1930–41’, MA thesis, National University of Singapore, 2001.
11. Captain L. D. Gammans, ‘Post-war planning in South-East Asia’, British Malaya, November 1942.
12. Ralph Hone, Report on the British Military Administration of Malaya, September 1945 to March 1946 (Kuala Lumpur, 1946).
13. Amy and Richard Haggard, ‘An account of the British Military Administration of Upper Perak, Malaya – 1945/46: being memories based on diaries and letters’, 4 April 2000, RCS, CUL.
14. Melanie Chew, Of hearts and minds: the story of Sembawang (Singapore, 1998), p. 58.
15. O. W. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore (London, 1950), p. 117.
16. Nicholas J. White, Business, government and the end of empire: Malaya, 1945–1957 (Kuala Lumpur, 1996), p. 75.
17. Sydney Caine to Lord Keynes, 19 March 1945, in A. J. Stockwell (ed.), British documents on the end of empire: Malaya, part I (London, 1995), pp. 90–1.
18. Arthur Alexander Thompson interview, OHD, SNA; J. Pickering, ‘Monthly report for January 1946, Refugees and Displaced Persons Branch, Peninsula Division’, BMA/ADM/2/28, ANM.
19. T. N. Harper, The end of empire and the making of Malay
a (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 41, 66; ‘A report on the damage resulting from the war and the Japanese occupation’, 10 December 1946, CSO/6929, SNA.
20. S. K. Chettur, Malayan adventure (Mangalore, 1948), p. 22. For the figures see Michiko Nakahara, ‘Labour recruitment in Malaya under the Japanese occupation: the case of the Burma–Siam railway’, in Jomo K. S. (ed.), Rethinking Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1997), pp. 215–45.
21. J. Pickering, ‘Monthly report for December 1945, Refugees and Displaced Persons Branch, Peninsula Division’, BMA/ADM/2/28, ANM; ‘Monthly report for January 1946’, ibid.
22. For example, Lau Siew Foo (Malayan Security Service) and J. C. Bary, ‘A brief review of Chinese affairs during the period of the Japanese occupation’, BMA/ADM/8/1, ANM.
23. R. W. Holder, Eleven months in Malaya: September 1945 to August 1946 (Kuala Lumpur, 2005), pp. 91–2. These images are in the collection of the Imperial War Museum; see, for example, Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten armies: Britain’s Asian Empire and the war with Japan (London, 2004), illustration no. 24.
24. Jan Ruff-O’Herne, 50 years of silence (Sydney, 1994), p. 131. For pioneering work on the Malayan case, Nakahara Michiko, ‘Comfort women in Malaysia’, Critical Asian Studies, 33, 4 (2001), pp. 581–9.
25. Minutes of the inaugural meeting of the Singapore Social Welfare Council, 26 July 1946; H. R. Horne, ‘Girls’ training school’, 26 September 1946, BMA/CH/27/45, SNA.
26. V. Purcell, minute, 25 March 1946, BMA/ADM/2/46, ANM.
27. Harper, The end of empire, pp. 42–4, 97, 229–30.
28. Nutrition Unit Visit to Mersing, BMA/HQ S.DIV/466/45; Matthews to Purcell, 22 September 1945, BMA/CH/7/45, SNA; Nutrition Unit, BMA, Malaya, ‘Final Report’, BMA/DEPT/1/13, ANM.
29. Sudarajulu Laksmana Perumal interview, OHD, SNA.
30. ‘Monthly report on labour, December 1945’, BMA/DEPT/2/1, ANM.
31. Pickering, ‘Monthly report for December 1945’; ‘Monthly report for January 1946’.
32. R. E. Vine, ‘Memorandum on the medical aspects of the use of opium and allied drugs in Malaya’, 5 December 1944; War Office to ALFSEA, 18 April 1945, BMA/DEPT/1/14 Pt 1, ANM.
33. Nanyang Siang Pau [Singapore], 23 November 1945; Pook Luk, ‘Broad-casting station’, Nanyang Siang Pau, 27 November 1945. Citations from the Chinese, Malay and Tamil press come from the translations in a variety of ‘Chinese Press Summaries’ and ‘Vernacular Press Digests’ prepared by the colonial government and to be found in the Singapore National Archives, the National Library of Singapore, the Arkib Negara Malaysia and the library of SOAS, London. The translations were selective and made in haste, but in some cases they form the only extant record of these journals.