by Harper, Tim
58. Two classic accounts are G. McT. Kahin, Nationalism and revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, 1952), and A. J. S. Reid, The Indonesian national revolution, 1945–50 (Sydney, 1974).
59. J. D. Legge, Sukarno: a political biography (Harmondsworth, 1972), pp. 181–202.
60. Tan Malaka (trans. and intro. Helen Jarvis), From jail to jail, vol. III, ([1948] Athens, OH, 1991), p. 100.
61. For more about this remarkable figure, see Rudolf Mrázek, ‘Tan Malaka: a political personality’s structure of experience’, Indonesia, 14 (1972), pp. 1–47; Anderson, Java in a time of revolution, pp. 269–83. For the Bose comparison: C. W. Watson, Of self and nation: autobiography and the representation of modern Indonesia (Honolulu, 2000), p. 74.
62. Richard Aldrich, Intelligence and the war against Japan: Britain, America and the politics of secret service (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 315–16.
63. Abu Hanifah, Tales of a revolution: a leader of the Indonesian revolution looks back (Sydney, 1972), p. 191.
64. Bogarde, Backcloth, p. 167.
65. William H. Frederick, Visions and heat: the making of the Indonesian revolution (Athens, OH, 1989), p. 200.
66. Idrus, ‘Surabaja’, trans. S. U. Nababan and Benedict Anderson, Indonesia, 5 (1968), p. 1.
67. Rudolf Mrázek, Sjahrir: politics and exile in Indonesia (Ithaca, 1994), pp. 669–70.
68. A. J. F. Doulton, The Fighting Cock: being the history of the 23rd Indian Division, 1942–1947 (Aldershot, 1951), p. 230.
69. William H. Frederick, ‘The man who knew too much: Ch. O. van der Plas and the future of Indonesia, 1927–1950’, in Hans Antöv and Stein Tønesson (eds.), Imperial policy and South East Asian Nationalism (London, 1995), p. 53.
70. Laurens van der Post, The admiral’s baby (London, 1996), p. 225.
71. F. S. V. Donnison, British military administration in the Far East (London, 1956), pp. 413–24.
72. Frederick, ‘The man who knew too much’, p. 51.
73. Van der Post, The admiral’s baby, p. 220.
74. Anthony Reid, ‘Pictures at an exhibition’, in Antöv and Tønesson (eds.), Imperial policy, p. 15.
75. Yong Mun Cheong, H. J. van Mook and Indonesian independence: a study of his role in Dutch–Indonesian relations, 1945–48 (The Hague, 1982), pp. 8–23.
76. As shown in a new and detailed study of the campaign, published since this account was completed: Richard McMillan, The British occupation of Indonesia, 1945–1946: Britain, the Netherlands and the Indonesian Revolution (London, 2005), revised from his ‘The British occupation of Indonesia, 1945–46’, unpublished PhD dissertation, London University, 2002.
77. Alberic Stacpoole, ‘Christison, Sir (Alexander Frank) Philip, fourth baronet (1893–1993)’, Oxford dictionary of national biography, Oxford, 2004; http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/51563, accessed 12 Sept. 2005.
78. Christison to Mountbatten, 13 October 1945, CAB119/191, TNA. See also Kahin, Nationalism and revolution in Indonesia, pp. 141–2.
79. SACSEA to Chiefs of Staff, 15 October 1945, CAB119/191, TNA.
80. ‘Report on morale of British, Indian and Colonial troops of ALFSEA, November 1945–January 1946’, WO203/4539, TNA.
81. Testimony of William H. Maaskemp, in Jan A. Krancher (ed.), The defining years of the Dutch East Indies, 1942–1949: survivors’ accounts of Japanese invasion and enslavement of Europeans and the revolution that created free Indonesia (London, 1996), p. 84.
82. Abu Hanifah, Tales of a revolution, pp. 194–8. See also McMillan, British occupation of Indonesia, pp. 156–64.
83. Anthony Reid, The blood of the people: revolution and the end of traditional rule in Northern Sumatra (Kuala Lumpur, 1979), p. 167.
84. Kahin, Nationalism and revolution, pp. 142–4.
85. Roadnight, ‘Sleeping with the enemy’.
86. Takao Fusayama, A Japanese memoir of Sumatra: love and hatred in the liberation war (Ithaca, 1993), pp. 102, 136–7; Reid, The blood of the people, pp. 166–9, 195.
87. Dening to Foreign Office, 3 October 1945, CAB119/191, TNA.
88. Dening to Cabinet, 24 October 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
89. SACSEA to Cabinet, 14 October 1945, CAB119/191, TNA.
90. SACSEA to chiefs of staff, 16 October 1945, ibid.
91. We have here drawn chiefly on Frederick, Visions and heat, pp. 263–9, and Anderson, Java in a time of revolution, pp. 151–66.
92. Idrus, ‘Surabaja’, p. 1.
93. Timothy Lindsey, The romance of K’tut Tantri and Indonesia: text and scripts, history and identity (Kuala Lumpur, 1997), p. 146. For K’tut Tantri’s own highly coloured version, Revolt in paradise (New York, 1960), pp. 176–98.
94. Idrus, ‘Surabaja’, p. 23.
95. Quoted in Frederick, Visions and heat, p. 255.
96. Doulton, The Fighting Cock, p. 253. For recent accounts see John Springhall, ‘“Disaster in Surabaya”: the death of Brigadier Mallaby during the British occupation of Java, 1945–46’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 24, 3 (1996), pp. 422–43; McMillan, British occupation of Indonesia, pp. 31–46.
97. Foreign Office to Dominion governments, 6 November 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
98. SACSEA to Cabinet, 2 November 1945; ARNEI to SACSEAC, 3 November 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
99. ‘Indonesian version of Brig. Mallaby’s death’, WO203/2455, TNA.
100. For the Mallaby controversy see J. G. A. Parrott, ‘Who killed Brigadier Mallaby?’, Indonesia, 20 (1975), pp. 87–111; Springhall, ‘“Disaster in Surabaya”’. Richard McMillan continues the debate in British occupation of Indonesia, pp. 46–52. McMillan’s account is more sympathetic to Mallaby than previous studies.
101. SEAC to Cabinet, CAB121/698, TNA.
102. This was certainly the view of Mallaby’s deputy, Major Lewis Pugh; see David Jordan, ‘“A particularly exacting operation”: British forces and the battle of Surabaya, November 1945’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 11, 3 (2000), p. 109.
103. D. Wehl, The birth of Indonesia (London, 1949), pp. 65–7.
104. AFNEI to ALFSEA, [?]16 November 1945, WO203/2650, TNA.
105. Idrus, ‘Surabaja’, p. 13.
106. Christison to Sir Archibald Nye, 23 November 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
107. Mrázek, Sjahrir, p. 308.
108. Anderson, Java in a time of revolution, pp. 2–10; Reid, The Indonesian national revolution, pp. 54–7. For a thoughtful discussion see William H. Frederick, ‘Shadows of an unseen hand: some patterns of violence in the Indonesian revolution, 1945–1949’, in F. Columbijn and T. Lindblad (eds.), Roots of violence in Indonesia: contemporary violence in historical perspective (Singapore, 2002), pp. 143–72.
109. Robert Cribb, Gangsters and revolutionaries: the Jakarta People’s Militia and the Indonesian revolution, 1945–1949 (Honolulu, 1991).
110. Abu Hanifah, Tales of a revolution, p. 175.
111. Ibid.
112. SACSEA to Chiefs of Staff, 22 December 1945, CAB121/699, TNA; Wehl, Birth of Indonesia, pp. 77–80.
113. Raymond (‘Turk’) Westerling, Challenge to terror (London, 1952), pp. 41–57.
114. Mrázek, Sjahrir, pp. 274–83.
115. Martha Gellhorn, ‘Java journey’, in The face of war (Harmondsworth, 1991). Mrásek, Sjahrir, pp. 209–18.
116. Frances Gouda with Thijs Brocades Zaalberg, American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: United States foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949 (Amsterdam, 2002), p. 126.
117. Woodman’s file has been released to the National Archive, KV2/1609, TNA.
118. John Coast, Recruit to revolution: adventure and politics in Indonesia (London, 1952), pp. 1–25.
119. Dening to SACSEA, 9 November 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
120. Aldrich, Intelligence and the war against Japan, pp. 356–7.
121. Danilyn Fox Rutherford, ‘Trekking to New Guinea: Dutch colonial fantasies of a virgin land, 1900–1942’, in Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda (eds.), Domesticating the e
mpire: race, gender and family life in French and Dutch colonialism (London, 1998), pp. 255–71.
122. Testimony of Hendrik B. Babtist in Krancher, The defining years of the Dutch East Indies, pp. 151–3.
123. S. Woodburn Kirby, The war against Japan, vol. V, The surrender of Japan (London, 1969), pp. 334–6. Christison to Sir Archibald Nye, 23 November 1945, CAB121/698; SACSEA to Cabinet, 3 December 1945, CAB121/699, TNA.
124. The Times, 29 December 1945.
125. Doulton, The Fighting Cock, pp. 290–1.
126. Bogarde, Backcloth, p. 175; Coldstream, Dirk Bogarde, pp. 176–9. The milieu is captured in Bogarde’s first novel, A gentle occupation (London, 1980).
127. Van der Post, The admiral’s baby, p. 279.
CHAPTER 5 1946: FREEDOM WITHOUT BORDERS
1. ‘Vernacular Press Digest, No. 4’, 24 November 1945, SNA.
2. ‘Peace or Destruction’, New Demcracy, 22 November 1945.
3. Utusan Melayu, 30 November 1945.
4. We have used the account of the Australian Communist Party leader John Lockwood, Black Armada: Australia & the struggle for Indonesian independence 1942–49 (Sydney, 1975).
5. Margaret George, Australia and the Indonesian revolution (Melbourne, 1980), p. 36.
6. Batavia to Foreign Office, 6 November 1945, CAB121/698, TNA.
7. Christopher E. Goscha, Thailand and the Southeast Asian networks of the Vietnamese revolution, 1885–1954 (London, 1999), ch. 5.
8. C. C. Chin and Karl Hack (eds.), Dialogues with Chin Peng: new light on the Malayan Communist Party (Singapore, 2004), pp. 126–7.
9. Suryono Darusman, Singapore and the Indonesian revolution, 1945–50 (Singapore, 1992), ch. 3; Twang Peck Yang, The Chinese business elite in Indonesia and the transition to independence, 1940–1950 (Kuala Lumpur, 1998).
10. Yong Mun Cheong, The Indonesian revolution and the Singapore connection, 1945–1949 (Singapore, 2003), p. 118.
11. New Democracy, 14 January 1946.
12. ‘Report on RAPWI in Malaya and Singapore’, 7 January 1946, BMA/ADM/2/34, ANM.
13. Wim Willems, ‘No sheltering sky: migrant identities of Dutch nationals from Indonesia’, in Andrea L. Smith (ed.), Europe’s invisible migrants (Amsterdam, 2003) pp. 33–60.
14. Quoted in Frances Gouda with Thijs Brocades Zaalberg, American visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: United States foreign policy and Indonesian nationalism, 1920–1949 (Amsterdam, 2002), p. 126.
15. Malayan Security Service, Political Intelligence Journal [MSS/PIJ], 15 July 1946, Dalley Papers, RHO; Commissioner of Police, ‘Dutch–Malay fracas’, 6 July 1946, CSO/2206/46, SNA.
16. Mustapha Hussain, Malay nationalism before Umno: the memoirs of Mustapha Hussain, translated by Insun Mustapha and edited by Jomo K. S. (Kuala Lumpur, 2005), pp. 318–19.
17. We have here drawn on Yong, The Indonesian revolution and the Singapore connection, ch. 3.
18. Khatijah Sidek, Memoirs of Khatijah Sidek: Puteri Kesateria Bangsa (Kuala Lumpur, 2001 [1960]), pp. 71–2.
19. Firdaus Haji Abdullah, Radical Malay politics: its origins and early development (Petaling Jaya, 1985), pp. 52–3.
20. Ahmad Boestamam (trans. William R. Roff), Carving the path to the summit (Athens, OH, 1979), p. 40. We are also grateful to Dr Syed Husin Ali for his recollections. For Bose’s influence on Boestamam, see A. J. Stockwell, British policy and Malay politics during the Malayan Union experiment, 1945–1948 (Kuala Lumpur, 1979), p. 46.
21. Shamsiah Fakeh, Memoir Shamsiah Fakeh: dari AWAS ke Rejimen Ke-10 (Bangi, 2004), pp. 34–3; MSS/PIJ, 15 July 1946.
22. Farish A Noor, Islam embedded: the historical development of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PAS (1951–2003), vol. I (Kuala Lumpur, 2004), pp. 113–16.
23. ‘Temubual dengan Saudara Abdullah C. D., tokoh nasional tanahair kita’, an interview which appeared in the publication Suluh Rakyat in 1988.
24. Han Suyin, ‘An outline of Malayan Chinese literature’, Eastern Horizon, 3, 6 (June, 1964), pp. 6–16; My house has two doors (London, 1980), p. 71.
25. ‘Fu-sheng’, ‘A new understanding is indispensable to the Malayan Overseas Chinese’, New Democracy, 9 December, 1945.
26. Victor Purcell, ‘Malaya’s Political Climate VII: 12 December 1945–7 January 1946’, WO203/5302, TNA.
27. ‘Pa-Jen’ [Hu Yuzhi], ‘The emancipation of the Chinese intelligentsia in Malaya’, Feng Hsia, 21 January 1946.
28. Speech by Hu Yu-chih [Hu Yuzhi], ‘Twofold mission of the democratic movement’, Min Sheng Pau, 12 October 1945.
29. T. J. Danaraj, Japanese invasion of Malaya and Singapore, memoirs of a doctor (Kuala Lumpur, 1990), pp. 153–4.
30. Lee Kuan Yew, The Singapore story (Singapore, 1998), pp. 89, 138.
31. Yeo Kim Wah, Political development in Singapore, 1945–55 (Singapore, 1973), pp. 88–98.
32. ‘The Malayan Democratic Union manifesto’, in Charles Gamba, The origins of trade unionism in Malaya (Singapore, 1960), pp. 433–7.
33. Lim Hong Bee, Born into war: autobiography of a barefoot colonial boy who grew up to face the challenge of the modern world (London, 1994), p. 373.
34. Charles B. McLane, Soviet strategies in Southeast Asia: an exploration of eastern policy under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, 1966), pp. 308, 318.
35. ‘A manifesto to the people of different races for the realisation of democratic policies, issued by the Central Executive Committee of the Malayan Communist Party on 5 February, 1946’, New Democracy, 8 February 1946.
36. Purcell, ‘Malaya’s Political Climate VII’.
37. Chin Peng, My side of history (Singapore, 2004), pp. 157–8.
38. McLane, Soviet strategies in Southeast Asia, pp. 310–12. McLane was one of the few scholars to be given access to the Special Branch’s four-volume, Basic paper on the Malayan Communist Party (1950).
39. Min Sheng Pau, 8 March 1946.
40. Sin Chew Jit Poh, 18 January 1946.
41. Manicasothy Saravanamuttu, The Sara saga (Singapore, n.d. [1969]), p. 132; New Democracy, 29 January 1946.
42. René Onraet to Hone, 6 March 1946, CO537/1579.
43. P. A. B. McKerron, ‘Minute of the meeting of the local civil labour employment committee, Fort Canning, 5 January 1946’, BMA/DEPT/2/4, ANM.
44. Diary 29 January 1946 to 1 February 1946, in Philip Ziegler (ed.), Personal diary of Admiral the Lord Mountbatten: Supreme Allied Commander, South-East Asia, 1943–1946 (London, 1988), p. 289.
45. ‘SAC’s 316th Meeting’, 9 February 1946, Hone Papers, RHO.
46. Mountbatten to chiefs of staff, 11 February 1946, CO537/1579.
47. Khong Kim Hoong, Merdeka: British rule and the struggle for independence in Malaya (Kuala Lumpur, 1984), p. 60. See also, John Springhall, ‘Mountbatten versus the generals: British military rule of Singapore, 1945–46’, Journal of Contemporary History, 34, 4 (2001), pp. 335–52.
48. Mountbatten to Brazier, 9 March 1946, CO537/1579, TNA.
49. Mountbatten to Stanley, 26 March 1946, ibid.
50. Hone to Gater 13 March 1946, ibid.
51. Ralph Hone to F. S. V. Donnison, 25 March 1953, Hone Papers, RHO.
52. Hone to Gator, 2 April 1946, CO537/1579, TNA.
53. Victor Purcell, The memoirs of a Malayan official (London, 1965), pp. 353–6.
54. ‘Crisis in Malaya’, New Democracy, 21 February 1946.
55. Mountbatten to George Hall, 4 January 1946, in A. J. Stockwell (ed.), British documents on the End of Empire: Malaya, part I (London, 1995), p. 191.
56. Summarized by Hone to Chinese Consul, Singapore, 8 March 1946, CO537/1580, TNA.
57. Amy and Richard Haggard, ‘An account of the British Military Administration of Upper Perak, Malaya – 1945/46: being memories based on diaries and letters’, 4 April 2000, RCS, CUL.
58. James de Vere Allen, The Malayan Union (New Haven, 1967), pp. 34–6.
59. Sultan of Johore to G. H. Hall (Colonial Office), 15 February 1946, RCS, CUL.
60. Johore Malays to Sultan Ibrahim, 22 February 1946, Maxwell Papers, RCS, CUL.
61. George Maxwell, ‘The enigma of Ibrahim of Johore’, n.d., ibid.
62. For these debates see Ariffin Omar, Bangsa Melayu: Malay concepts of democracy and community, 1945–50 (Kuala Lumpur, 1993).
63. See the seminal essay by Kassim bin Ahmad, Characterization in Hikayat Hang Tuah: a general survey of character-portrayal and analysis and interpretation of the characters of Hang Tuah and Hang Jebat (Kuala Lumpur, 1966), p. 43.
64. John Coast, Recruit to revolution: adventure and politics in Indonesia (London, 1952), p. 41; Donna J. Amoroso, ‘Dangerous politics and the Malay nationalist movement, 1945–47,’ South East Asia Research, 6, 3 (1998), p. 259.
65. Quoted in Amoroso, ‘Dangerous politics’, p. 259.
66. O. W. Gilmour, With freedom to Singapore (London, 1950), p. 186.
67. Henry Barlow, Swettenham (Kuala Lumpur, 1995), p. 727.
68. ‘Notes of a discussion at the Colonial Office on 26 February 1946 on the White Paper on Malayan Union’, ibid.
69. The Times, 16 April 1946.
70. MacDonald to Hall, 21–22 June 1946, in Stockwell, British documents: Malaya, part I, pp. 252–5.
71. Pelita Malaya, 6 May 1946.
72. Firdaus Haji Abdullah, Radical Malay politics: its origins and early development (Petaling Jaya, 1985), pp. 82–4; Amoroso, ‘Dangerous politics’; Boestamam, Carving the path, p. 49.
73. Lt. Col. R. F. Tredgold, ‘Psychiatry in ALFSEA’, March 1946, WO222/1319, TNA.
74. ‘HMS Northway: minutes and findings of a Board of Enquiry’, 20 October 1945, ADM116/6422, TNA.
75. MSS/PIJ, 31 May 1947.
76. MSS/PIJ, 31 May 1946.
77. New Democracy, 30 January 1946.
78. David Duncan, Mutiny in the RAF: the Air Force Strikes of 1946, The Socialist History Society, Occasional Papers Series, no. 8, London, 1998.
79. R. D. Heanly, ‘Final Report on SIB investigation of RAF Mutinies in India’, 21 May, 1946; Tom Driberg to William Attwood, 11 April 1946; minute 23 July 1946, AIR20/11516, TNA.
80. The Times, 14 August 1946.
81. The Times, 11 October 1946.
82. Stopford to Roberts, 9 October 1946, WO203/6249; Roberts to Stopford to Roberts 11 October 1946, WO203/6249; TNA.