2. PGW, Col. 1:56–62.
3. Washington’s instructions, the letter to the French, and Washington’s journal are in CO 5/1328:45, 47, 51–60; CO 5/14, pt. 1:59, 63–70; PGW, Col. 1:60–61; The Journal of Major George Washington: An Account of his First Official Mission, Made as Emissary from the Governor of Virginia to the Commandant of the French Forces on the Ohio, October 1753–January 1754, facsimile ed. (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1959), 25–26; Diaries of GW 1:127; Lois Mulkearn, ed., George Mercer Papers relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954), 74–75.
4. Choctaw delegates took seventy-seven days to travel from their Mississippi homeland to the Treaty of Hopewell in 1785, traveling at a deliberate and ritualistic pace, as befitted a mission they regarded as a spiritual as well as a diplomatic undertaking. Greg O’Brien, “The Conqueror Meets the Unconquered: Negotiating Cultural Boundaries on the Post-Revolutionary Southern Frontier,” Journal of Southern History 67 (2001): 39–72.
5. CO 5/1328:47; PGW, Col. 1:60; Diaries of GW 1:128.
6. CO 5/14, pt. 1:63 and Journal of Major George Washington, 4 (quote); Diaries of GW 1:132; “Journal of Mr. Christopher Gist, who accompanied Major George Washington in his First Visit to the French Commander of the Troops in the Ohio, 1753,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 5 (1836), 102.
7. Fausz, “ ‘Engaged in Enterprises Pregnant with Terror,’ ” 115; PGW, Col. 1:155 (“sense and experience”).
8. CO 5/14, pt. 1:63; Journal of Major George Washington, 5; Diaries of GW 1:133.
9. CO 5/14, pt. 1:64; Diaries of GW 1:135–36; David Dixon, “A High Wind Rising: George Washington, Fort Necessity, and the Ohio Country Indians,” Pennsylvania History 74 (2007): 333–37. For a detailed narrative of their subsequent relationship, see Paul R. Misencik, George Washington and the Half-King Chief Tanacharison: An Alliance That Began the French and Indian War ( Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014).
10. CO 5/14, pt. 1:64; Journal of Major George Washington, 6–7; Diaries of GW 1:137.
11. Mulkearn, George Mercer Papers, 76.
12. CO 5/14, pt. 1:64; Journal of Major George Washington, 8; Diaries of GW 1:137–38.
13. Fred Anderson, ed., George Washington Remembers: Reflections on the French and Indian War (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004), 16, 31–32, 118, 137–38; David Humphreys, “Life of General Washington,” with George Washington’s “Remarks,” ed. Rosemarie Zagarri (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 10; Diaries of GW 1:183, 184n; PGW, Col. 1:87–88, 2:98 (to Montour); PGW, Confed. 5:516.
14. When the Delawares gave Colonel Daniel Brodhead the name Maghinga Keesoch (Great Moon) in 1779, they told him that he was expected to be of the same disposition as the original holder of the name and that he must use it in his formal dealings with all the Indian nations. Louise Phelps Kellogg, ed., Frontier Advance on the Upper Ohio, 1778–1779 (Madison: Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1916), 282.
15. CO 5/14, pt. 1:65; Journal of Major George Washington, 9–10; Diaries of GW 1:140; Mulkearn, “Half King,” 75.
16. CO 5/14, pt. 1:65–66; Journal of Major George Washington, 11–12; Diaries of GW 1:141.
17. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; Journal of Major George Washington, 12.
18. CO 5/1328:28–29; Ian K. Steele, “Shawnee Origins of Their Seven Years’ War,” Ethnohistory 53 (2006): 657–87.
19. Richard S. Grimes, “We ‘Now Have Taken Up the Hatchet against Them’: Braddock’s Defeat and the Martial Liberation of the Western Delawares,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 137 (2013): 227–59.
20. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; Journal of Major George Washington, 12; Diaries of GW 1:142.
21. WJP 9:604 (no weight); Wilbur R. Jacobs, Wilderness Politics and Indian Gifts: The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1748–1763 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966), chs. 6–7.
22. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; Journal of Major George Washington, 13; Diaries of GW 1:142–43. Gist described the Indian escort as “the Half King and two old men and one young warrior”; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 103. Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: Norton, 1988), 63; EAID 2:418 (Weiser’s description of Belt of Wampum), 491n49–50; CRP 6:614. On Guyasuta, see Brady J. Crytzer, Guyasuta and the Fall of Indian America (Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2013).
23. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; Diaries of GW 1:143.
24. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; Journal of Major George Washington, 13–14; Diaries of GW 1:144–45.
25. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 103–4; Diaries of GW 1:145–46.
26. CO 5/14, pt. 1:66–67; Journal of Major George Washington, 14–15; Diaries of GW 1:146.
27. CO 5/14, pt. 1:67; Journal of Major George Washington, 15; Diaries of GW 1:146.
28. CO 5/14, pt. 1:67; Journal of Major George Washington, 15–16; Diaries of GW 1:147.
29. “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 104.
30. CO 5/14, pt. 1:67; Journal of Major George Washington, 16; Diaries of GW 1:147.
31. CO 5/14, pt. 1:67; Journal of Major George Washington, 16–17; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 104–5; Diaries of GW 1:148–49.
32. CO 5/14, pt. 1:68; Journal of Major George Washington, 17–18; Diaries of GW 1:150.
33. CO 5/14, pt. 1:68; Journal of Major George Washington, 19; Diaries of GW 1:151–52.
34. CO 5/14, pt. 1:68; Journal of Major George Washington, 19–20; Diaries of GW 1:152.
35. CO 5/14, pt. 1:68–69; Journal of Major George Washington, 20; Diaries of GW 1:154.
36. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 21; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 105–6; Diaries of GW 1:154–55.
37. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 21; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 106–7; Diaries of GW 1:155.
38. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 21–22; Diaries of GW 1:155–56; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 107; Brady J. Crytzer, Major Washington’s Pittsburgh and the Mission to Fort Le Boeuf (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2011), 114–15.
39. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 22; Diaries of GW 1:156.
40. Andrew Gallup, ed., The Céloron Expedition to the Ohio Country, 1749: The Reports of Pierre-Joseph Céloron and Father Bonnecamps (Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1997), 39; Reuben G. Thwaites, ed., Early Western Journals, 1748–1765, rpt. of Early Western Travels, vol. 1 (1904; Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods Publishing, 1998), 24 and 24n16 (Weiser and Celeron quotes); “The Treaty of Logg’s Town, 1752,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 13 (Oct. 1905): 157; Charles A. Hanna, The Wilderness Trail, 2 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911), 1:329, 344 (Kanuksusy as spokesman).
41. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 22; Diaries of GW 1:156; “Journal of Christopher Gist,” 107.
42. CO 5/14, pt. 1:69; Journal of Major George Washington, 22.
43. Daniel P. Barr, A Colony Sprung from Hell: Pittsburgh and the Struggle for Authority on the Western Pennsylvania Frontier, 1744–1794 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2014), 47.
44. CO 5/14, pt. 1:61, 69; Journal of Major George Washington, 27–28; Diaries of GW 1:158–60; Executive Journals 5:458–60.
45. JHBV, 1752–58, 175–77.
46. Diaries of GW 1:163.
47. JHBV, 1752–58, 178, 182–83, 185.
48. CO 5/1328:43, 45, 47, 51–60.
49. Dinwiddie Papers 1:55–57; Mulkearn, George Mercer Papers, 82–83; Executive Journals 5:460.
50. James Titus, The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991), 41–45; Dinwiddie Papers 1:59; PGW, Col. 1:64–65.
51. Dinwiddie Papers 1:88–90, 109–11; Executive Journals 5:462, 499–500; Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2005), 21.
52. Titus, The O
ld Dominion at War, 14–23, 43–45.
53. Dinwiddie Papers 1:92–93, 106 (Washington’s complaints and Dinwiddie reply); PGW, Col. 1:72–74.
Chapter 4: Tanaghrisson’s War
1. CO 5/1328:21; CRP 5:734.
2. David Dixon, “A High Wind Rising: George Washington, Fort Necessity, and the Ohio Country Indians,” Pennsylvania History 74 (2007): 341.
3. EAID 2:330; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 238.
4. Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Knopf, 2000), 32.
5. Contrecoeur’s summons in CO 5/14, pt. 2:193–94, CO 5/1328:95–96, CRP 6:29–30, and NYCD 6:841–43. PGW, Col. 1:85–87; Anderson, Crucible of War, 46–49; Neville B. Craig, ed., The Olden Time, 2 vols. (Pittsburgh: J. W. Cook, 1846–48), 1:83–84; Lois Mulkearn, “Half King, Seneca Diplomat of the Ohio Valley,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 37 (Summer 1954): 78. Edward Ward’s account of events is in CO 5/14, pt. 2:195–96, CO 5/1328:101–2, and Kenneth P. Bailey, ed., The Ohio Company Papers, 1753–1817, Being Primarily Papers of the “Suffering Traders” of Pennsylvania (Arcata, CA: Sons of the American Revolution Library, 1947), 26–31.
6. Donald H. Kent, ed., “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal for 1754,” Pennsylvania History 19 (Jan. 1952): 10; Lois Mulkearn, ed., George Mercer Papers relating to the Ohio Company of Virginia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1954), 85–88; Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2005), 32–33.
7. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 11–12. Another version of Tanaghrisson’s speech is in CO 5/14, pt. 2:164, 189; Mulkearn, George Mercer Papers, 88; and CRP 2:321, 6:31.
8. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 13–14; CO 5/1328:97–98; CO 5/14, pt. 2:191–92; Diaries of GW 1:183–84.
9. PGW, Col. 1:89; CO 5/1328:98.
10. CO 5/1327, pt. 2:300–301.
11. Executive Journals 5:468–69.
12. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 15; Dinwiddie Papers 1:152.
13. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 18; Diaries of GW 1:189.
14. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 19; Diaries of GW 1:191–92.
15. PGW, Col. 1:101.
16. Dinwiddie Papers 1:171–73, 189; PGW, Col. 1:102.
17. PGW, Col. 1:105.
18. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 20; Diaries of GW 1:193–94; Lengel, General George Washington, 36.
19. Scoouwa: The Indian Captivity Narrative of James Smith (1799; Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1978), 152.
20. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 20–21; Diaries of GW 1:194–95; Dixon, “A High Wind Rising,” 343.
21. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 21; Diaries of GW 1:195–96; PGW, Col. 1:110; Dinwiddie Papers 1:179.
22. Fred Anderson, ed., George Washington Remembers: Reflections on the French and Indian War (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004) 17, 121.
23. “An Ohio Iroquois Warrior’s Account of the Jumonville Affair, 1754,” in David L. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 27, 351–53.
24. Anderson, Crucible of War, 53–59; Dixon, “A High Wind Rising,” 344. French eyewitness in PGW, Col. 1:114; statements of Davison and Scarouady in CRP 6:195; Pennsylvania Gazette, June 27, 1754; “An Ohio Iroquois Warrior’s Account of the Jumonville Affair, 1754,” 352.
25. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 21–22; Joseph L. Peyser, trans. and ed., Letters from New France: The Upper Country, 1686–1783 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 196–97.
26. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 21–22; Diaries of GW 1:197–98; GWP, Col. 1:110–11, 116–17; Dinwiddie Papers 1:176–83, 225–28.
27. PGW, Col. 1:119; Dinwiddie Papers 1:186.
28. “Affidavit of John Shaw,” in William L. McDowell Jr., ed., The Colonial Records of South Carolina: Documents relating to Indian Affairs, 1754–1765 (Columbia: South Carolina Department of Archives and History, 1970), 4; Hayes Baker-Crothers and Ruth Allison Hudnut, “A Private Soldier’s Account of Washington’s First Battles in the West: A Study in Historical Criticism,” Journal of Southern History 10 (1952): 24.
29. Anderson, Crucible of War, 57–58. Anderson notes that the deserter’s name, Denis Kaninguen, suggests he may have been a Catholic Iroquois, although most Catholic Iroquois came from the mission villages on the St. Lawrence and would have been unlikely to join an English army.
30. PGW, Col. 1:112; Dinwiddie Papers 1:214 (black wampum), 216; Paul R. Misencik, George Washington and the Half-King Chief Tanacharison: An Alliance That Began the French and Indian War (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014), 114; Dixon, “A High Wind Rising,” 345.
31. Beverly McAnear, ed., “Personal Accounts of the Albany Congress of 1754,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (1953): 742.
32. CO 5/14, pt. 2:197–98; CO 5/1328:117; PGW, Col. 1:114–15; Dinwiddie Papers 1:206; also Martin West, ed., War for Empire in Western Pennsylvania (Ligonier, PA: Fort Ligonier Association, 1993), 20.
33. Mulkearn, “Half King,” 80.
34. NYCD 10:270.
35. PGW, Col. 1:118–19; Stephen Brumwell, George Washington, Gentleman Warrior (London: Quercus, 2012), 54; David A. Clary, George Washington’s First War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 89: Ron Chernow, Washington: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2010), 44.
36. Anderson, Crucible of War, 58–59.
37. Anderson, Crucible of War, 60.
38. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 23; Diaries of GW 1:199; PGW, Col, 1:122–23; Dinwiddie Papers 1:191.
39. Diaries of GW 1:199–201; PGW, Col. 1:125n, 135, 174; Dinwiddie Papers 1:148n, 222; EIAD 5:192; CO 5/1328:29 (Scarouady’s son christened).
40. PGW, Col. 1:121 (wampum), 124 (“singular use”), 129–30 (“in all affairs”), 146; Dinwiddie Papers 1:187–90, 192, 229.
41. Dinwiddie Papers 1:193.
42. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 25–30; Diaries of GW 1:202–4.
43. Mulkearn, “Half King,” 80; Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 30; Washington’s Journal, 1754, 78; Diaries of GW 1:207–8.
44. Villiers’s journal of his expedition is in Fernand Grenier, ed., Papiers Contrecoeur et autres documents concernant le conflit Anglo-François sur l’Ohio de 1745 à 1756 (Quebec: Presses Universitaires Laval, 1952), 196–202, trans. in Peyser, Letters from New France, 198–208; Contrecoeur’s orders at 201. On the ambivalence of the Indian allies, see D. Peter MacLeod, The Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years’ War (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1996), 43–44.
45. Dixon, “A High Wind Rising,” 347.
46. PGW, Col. 1:158–64 (“Bayonets screw’d” at 161); Anderson, Crucible of War, 17.
47. Peyser, Letters from New France, 205; MacLeod, Canadian Iroquois and the Seven Years’ War, 48; Dixon, “A High Wind Rising,” 348–49; Alan Axelrod, Blooding at Great Meadows: Young George Washington and the Battle That Shaped the Man (Philadelphia: Running Press, 2007).
48. PGW, Col. 1:160–72; Grenier, Papiers Contrecoeur et autres documents, 202–5; Peyser, Letters from New France, 205–7; CRP 6: 52–53.
49. Writing during the Revolution, Hector St. John De Crèvecouer reflected on the irony that the murderer of Jumonville was now “the idol of the French.” Henri L. Bourdin, Ralph H. Gabriel, and Stanley T. Williams, eds., Sketches of Eighteenth Century America: More “Letters from an American Farmer” by St. John De Crèvecouer (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1925), 176–77.
50. Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser, July 25, 1754.
51. Quoted in James Thomas Flexner, George Washington: The Forge of Experience, 1732–1775 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965), 107.
52. PGW, Col. 1:167–68, 170.
53. Kent, “Contrecoeur’s Copy of George Washington’s Journal,” 1, 3 (Duquesne quote); Axelrod, Blooding at Great Meadows, 242–43 (Washington quote).
54. Quoted in Willard Sterne Randall, George Washington: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 105.
55. NYCD 6:852.
56. Clary, George Washington’s First War, 112; Thomas Agostini, Imperial Dilemmas, manuscript in progress, ch. 2.
57. CRP 6:51; Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser, July 25, 1754.
58. Dinwiddie Papers 1:256.
59. Francis Jennings, Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America (New York: Norton, 1988), 67–68 (quote), 155–56.
60. Lengel, General George Washington, 45–46.
61. Robert J. Kapsch, The Potomac Canal: George Washington and the Waterway West (Morgantown: West Virginia University Press, 2007), 10–15.
62. PGW, Col. 1:185, 187.
63. CRP 6:140–41; NYCD 7:270; EAID 3:200; “Croghan’s Journal,” in Early Western Journals, 1748–1765, ed. Reuben G. Thwaites, rpt. of Early Western Travels, vol. 1 (1904; Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods Publishing, 1998), 96–97.
64. CRP 6:145–50.
65. Anthony F. C. Wallace, King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, 1700–1763 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 58–59.
66. EAID 2:353; CRP 6:151–52; [Charles Thomson], An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest, and into the Measures Taken for Recovering Their Friendship (London: Printed for J. Wilkie, 1759), 80–81.
67. EAID 2:352–60 (“high Wind” at 356); CRP 6:152–56.
68. “An Ohio Iroquois Warrior’s Account of the Jumonville Affair, 1754,” 351–53.
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