58. Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 98–99.
59. Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 99.
60. Douglas Southall Freeman, Washington, 1-vol. abridgement by Richard Harwell of the 7-vol. George Washington (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 195.
61. Ambler, George Washington and the West, 150.
62. PGW, Col. 9:199, 204–7. This was the father of Captain James Wood, who served as commissioner at the Fort Pitt conference in 1775.
63. PGW, Col. 9:217–18, 322–23 (“facilitating Schemes”); Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 27–28.
64. Cook, Washington’s Western Lands, 39.
65. PGW, Col. 9:328–32; Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 29–33.
66. PGW, Col. 9:248–49.
67. Diaries of GW 3:152; Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 102–3.
68. Sturdevant, “Quest for Eden,” ch. 3, quote at 52.
69. PGW, Col. 9:278–79.
70. PGW, Col. 9:490 (“Malice, absurdity, & error”), 500–501 (“malignant disposition”); Holton, Forced Founders, 32.
71. Joseph Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (New York: Vintage, 2005), 58.
72. Rasmussen, “Anarchy and Enterprise on the Imperial Frontier.”
73. Reuben G. Thwaites and Louise Phelps Kellogg, eds., Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 1774 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1905), 371; DAR 8:253.
74. WJP 8:615–16 (“vast Influence”), 679, 1012, 1016, 1032, 1086; NYCD 8:315, 495.
75. WJP 12:1044–61, quotes at 1045, 1052–53.
76. WJP 12:1095–98; Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 9–19, 246; Strang, “Michael Cresap and the Promulgation of Settler Land-Claiming Methods,” 125–26; Griffin, American Leviathan, 108–10. Reports that Cresap’s men killed forty Indians appear to have been much exaggerated. On Cresap’s subsequent career and reputation, see Robert G. Parkinson, “From Indian Killer to Worthy Citizen: The Revolutionary Transformation of Michael Cresap,” William and Mary Quarterly 63 (2006): 97–122.
77. Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 48–51; PGW, Col. 10:54 (“at my house” and “Avackquated”), 93 (“unavoidable.”)
78. Pennsylvania Archives, ser. 1, 4:569–70.
79. WJP 12:1098.
80. WJP 12:1099.
81. WJP 12:1060; DAR 8:134, 208; Diaries of GW 3:286n.
82. Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 66–67 (“scheming party”); DAR 8:15. In the turmoil of the Ohio Valley, writes Barbara Rasmusson, “Cresap answered to John Connolly, who answered to Dunmore, who increasingly answered to no one.” Instead of a renegade act committed by rash individuals, Ramusson builds the case that the assault was “conceived by Dunmore, planned by Connolly, and led by Daniel and Nathaniel Greathouse, militia soldiers under Cresap’s command.” Rasmusson, “Anarchy and Enterprise,” quotes at 1–2; Strang, “Michael Cresap and the Promulgation of Settler Land-Claiming Methods,” 125–29; Griffin, American Leviathan, 104–13; Holton, Ohio Indians, 473; Barnet Schecter, George Washington’s America: A Biography through His Maps (New York: Walker, 2010), 67. David, Dunmore’s New World, 76–93, offers a more generous interpretation and argues that conjuring up a war was beyond the governor’s capability. Using more Virginian sources, Glenn F. Williams, Dunmore’s War: The Last Conflict of America’s Colonial Era (Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2017) counters accounts based on Pennsylvanian sources and portrays Virginian soldiers as fighting “a defensive war against unprovoked Shawnee and Mingo attacks on the south bank of the Ohio.” Dunmore resorted to offensive operations only when that seemed the most effective way to end the war and secure the frontier (xiv). It would not be the last time in American history that a governor fomented an Indian war for economic reasons; see Report of the John Evans Study Committee, Northwestern University, May 2014, http://www.northwestern.edu/provost/committees/equity-and-inclusion/study-committee-report.pdf (accessed Aug. 15, 2017).
83. PGW, Col. 10:72–73, 87.
84. Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 91–93.
85. Strang, “Michael Cresap and the Promulgation of Settler Land-Claiming Methods,” 123–24.
86. PGW, Col. 10:12–16, 50–53.
87. PGW, Col. 10:169; Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 85–99.
88. Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 33–35.
89. PGW, Col. 10:96–97.
90. Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 52–53. Dunmore’s account of the war is in DAR 8:257–62.
91. Hermann Wellenreuther and Carola Wessel, eds., The Moravian Mission Diaries of David Zeisberger, 1772–1781 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2005), 232.
92. DAR 8:261–62; Wellenreuther and Wessel, Moravian Mission Diaries of David Zeisberger, 233n527; Charles A. Stuart, ed., Memoir of Indian Wars, and Other Occurrences, by the Late Colonel Stuart, of Greenbrier (New York: New York Times and Arno Press rpt., 1971), 46–48; Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 253–96.
93. PGW, Col. 10:181–83; Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 54–57; Thwaites and Kellogg, Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 303–4 (“chiefly Women & Children”); Ambler, George Washington and the West, 156.
94. PGW, Col. 10:241.
95. François Furstenberg, “The Significance of the Trans-Appalachian Frontier in Atlantic History,” American Historical Review 113 (2008): 654; Holton, Forced Founders, 33.
96. Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 96–98; PGW, Col. 10:320; Chernow, Washington, 176.
97. PGW, Rev. 2:553.
98. Ambler, George Washington and the West, 149–50; Schecter, George Washington’s America, 65–66 (map). A detailed summary listing of Washington tracts—locations, acreage, when and how acquired—is provided in PGW, Confed. 1:93–95n.
99. Holton, Forced Founders, 28 (“rejected land petitions”), 37.
100. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, 218; Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 97–98 (Dinwiddie claims); Friend, Kentucke’s Frontiers, 114–15, 131; Holton, “Ohio Indians,” 477–78; Holton, Forced Founders, 38; Sachs, Home Rule, 32–40.
101. Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution, 368–69.
102. PGW, Col. 9:517.
103. Reuben G. Thwaites and Louise P. Kellogg, eds., The Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 1775–1777 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1908), 129.
104. DAR 12:189.
105. The treaty is in EAID 18:203–5; depositions regarding the treaty are in PTJ 2:68–110 (Dragging Canoe and “bloody ground” at 74, 87, 97, 105–6); CVSP 1:282–87 (“bloody Ground” at 283), 290–92, 303–11; DAR 9:33–34 (“moderate”); PGW, Col. 10:247, 298 (“Virga Gentlemen”), 312 (“neither understand”), 333.
106. Executive Journals 6:662–63.
107. DAR 9:90.
108. DAR 12:198–99; William L. Saunders, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina, vol. 10 (Raleigh, NC: State Printer, 1890), 764; John Stuart to Lieut. General Clinton, Aug. 29, 1776, University of Michigan, Clements Library, Clinton Mss. 18:11.
Chapter 10: The Question of Indian Allies
1. DAR 9:105, 142; American Archives, ser. 4, 2:714.
2. Caroline Cox, “The Continental Army,” and Stephen Conway, “The British Army and the War of Independence,” in The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution, ed. Edward G. Gray and Jane Kamensky (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), chs. 9 and 10 (nothing revolutionary at 163); James Kirby Martin and Mark Edward Lender, A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763–1789, 2nd ed. (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2006), 43–44; John W. Hall, “An Irregular Reconsideration of George Washington and the American Military Tradition,” Journal of Military History 78 (2014): 961–93.
3
. PGW, Rev. 23:723.
4. PGW, Rev. 8:302–3n; “Memorial of James Smith,” Pennsylvania Archives, 2nd ser., 1 (1874): 714; Scoouwa: James Smith’s Indian Captivity Narrative (1799; Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1978), 144–46.
5. PGW, Rev. 10:482–83, 636 (“well acquainted”), 641–42, 11:12, 38 (“Panic Struck”). Burgoyne reckoned “the rebels are more alarmed at the report of engaging Indians than at any other measure.” Quoted in Andrew Jackson O’Shaughnessy, The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 138.
6. PGW, Rev. 6:249 (“to the risque”), 13:156 (St. Clair).
7. PGW, Rev. 20:707; Wayne Lee, Barbarians and Brothers: Anglo-American Warfare, 1500–1865 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 194.
8. PGW, Rev. 1:12–13 (quote), 17, 19.
9. Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2005), 149–50, 168; John Ferling, The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009), 148–49.
10. Lengel, General George Washington, 87.
11. PGW, Rev. 1:37.
12. Schuyler’s papers as commissioner of Indian affairs in the Northern Department during the Revolution are in NYPL, Philip Schuyler Papers, reel 7, Indian Papers.
13. Occom to John Thornton, 1776, Dartmouth College, Rauner Library, Ms. 776900.2; Joanna Brooks, ed., The Collected Writings of Samson Occom, Mohegan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 113.
14. Colonel George Morgan Letterbooks, 1775–79, 3 vols., Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, 2:2.
15. Robert G. Parkinson, The Common Cause: Creating Race and Nation in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016), 101; Paul H. Smith et al., eds. Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774–1789, 20 vols. (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1976–93), 1:452 (Adams quotes).
16. DAR 10:182, 11:15–17, 12:15, 70–71.
17. Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 28, 34; Barry O’Connell, ed., On Our Own Ground: The Complete Writings of William Apess, a Pequot (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 239–40; George Quintal Jr., Patriots of Color: “A Peculiar Beauty and Merit”: African Americans and Native Americans at Battle Road and Bunker Hill (Boston: Boston National Historical Park, 2002), 30–31; Eric G. Grundset, ed., Forgotten Patriots: African American and American Indian Patriots of the Revolutionary War (Washington, DC: National Society Daughters of the American Revolution, 2008).
18. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 92, 94; PCC, reel 144, item 134, 43; NYCD 8:626.
19. [Joseph Merriam], “Diary of an (unknown) soldier at Cambridge, 1775,” Boston Public Library, Ms. Ch. B. 12.72.
20. DAR 11:105.
21. Simon Schama, Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 7.
22. Alan Taylor, American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804 (New York: Norton, 2016), 231.
23. JCC 3:401.
24. JCC 4:410–12, 415; PGW, Rev. 4:456, 516.
25. PGW, Rev. 5:59–60n; JCC 5:452 (rewards).
26. PGW, Rev. 4:538n8.
27. JCC 5:473; PGW, Rev. 5:102–3, 125; PCC, reel 23, item 12A, 1:194, 196.
28. PGW, Rev. 5:519; PCC, reel 166, item 152, 2:316.
29. PGW, Rev. 5:548; PCC, reel 23, item 12A, 2:14; JCC 5:627–28.
30. PGW, Rev. 5:595–95, 613, 625–26; PCC, reel 166, item 152, 2:363.
31. PGW, Rev. 6:41, 129, 157, 187.
32. PCC, reel 166, item 152, 2:363.
33. PGW, Rev. 7:381–83.
34. American Archives, ser. 4, 3:490.
35. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 96; JCC 9:840.
36. PGW, Rev. 16:448; Joseph P. Tustin, ed., Diary of the American War: A Hessian Journal: Captain Johann Ewald, Field Jäger Corps (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1979), 144–45; J. G. Simcoe, Simcoe’s Military Journal: A History of the Operations of a Partisan Corps, Called the Queen’s Rangers (New York: Bartlett & Welford, 1844), 81, 85–86; Patrick Frazier, The Mohicans of Stockbridge (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 221–25. A list of the Stockbridge men killed in battle during the Revolution is in Pickering Papers 62:167.
37. Writings of Washington 20:44–45; PCC, reel 170, item 152, 9:165–66.
38. Frazier, Mohicans of Stockbridge, 227–29; PCC, reel 170, item 152, 9:165–66; PGW, Rev. 21:184, 345–47; Writings of Washington 23:75, 80.
39. PCC, reel 50, item 41, 4:422; Pickering Papers 62:167, 167A.
40. Writings of Washington 27:53.
41. JCC 29:688–89.
42. PGW, Rev. 3:202–3.
43. PGW, Rev. 1:367–69, 2:554, 600 (“incontrovertable”).
44. PGW, Rev. 2:27–28.
45. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, ch. 2; Colin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), ch. 11.
46. PGW, Rev. 1:306, 331–32; Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 69–70; Writings of Washington 3:423–24, 437.
47. PGW, Rev. 1:229 (“totally averse” and “cherish these dispositions”); David L. Preston, Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 324.
48. L. H. Butterfield, ed., Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 4 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 2:227.
49. PGW, Rev. 3:34, 112–13, 180–81, 202 (“first Man”), 218; American Archives, ser. 4, 4:580–82, 840–41.
50. PGW, Rev. 3:202–3, 223 (Indian speech), 234, 239–40 (to Schuyler); American Archives, ser. 4, 4:872–73, 908–9.
51. PGW, Rev. 3:313; American Archives, ser. 4, 4:1146.
52. PGW, Rev. 4:388.
53. Pickering Papers 33:239; GW to Schuyler, July 23, 1779 (“our friend”), GWPLC; Maryly B. Penrose, ed., Indian Affairs Papers: American Revolution (Franklin Park, NJ: Liberty Bell Associates, 1981), 192, 223–24, 349; DHFFC 7:378–80 (secretary of war’s report on commissioning of Cook and other Oneidas and Tuscaroras). At Valley Forge: Anthony Gerring, “Col. Louis Cook: Operatic Abenaki, US Patriot, Devoted Catholic,” National Catholic Register, June 18, 2017 (thanks to Rich Holschuh for this); Darren Bonaparte, “Colonel Louis at Oriskany and Valley Forge,” http://www.wampumchronicles.com/oriskanyandvalleyforge.html
54. Durand Echeverria, “The Iroquois Visit Rochambeau at Newport in 1780: Excerpts from the Unpublished Journal of the Comte de Charlus,” Rhode Island History 11 (1952): 73–81, quote at 77.
55. Elizabeth Cometti, trans. and ed., Seeing America and Its Great Men: The Journal and Letters of Count Francesco dal Verme, 1783–1784 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1969), 13, 107n32.
56. PGW, Rev. 4:87, 90, 147; American Archives, ser. 4, 5:989.
57. PGW, Rev. 2:176.
58. Colin G. Calloway, The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2010), 38–42; JCC 2:176–77; Resolutions of the U.S. Continental Congress, Sept. 19, 1776, Dartmouth College, Rauner Library, Ms. 776519; Wheelock to Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Oct. 13, 1777, and May 27, 1778, Ms. 77563.1 and 778327; Wheelock to Congress, Nov. 1, 1778 and Apr. 2, 1779, Ms. 778601 and 779252.1; GW to Bayley, Mar. 15, 1780, GWPLC.
59. PGW, Rev. 4:413.
60. PGW, Rev. 18:289, 290, 512–13n.
61. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 216; “Muster Roll of Captain John Vincent’s Company of Indian Rangers,” in Frederic P. Wells, History of Newbury, Vermont (St. Johnsbury, VT: Caledonian, 1902), 409.
62. GW to John Wheelock and twice to Bayley, June 9, 1781, GWPLC.
63. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, ch. 2, esp. 70–74, 81; Colin G. Calloway, “Sentinels of Revolution: Bedel’s New Hampshire Rangers a
nd the Abenaki Indians on the Upper Connecticut,” Historical New Hampshire 45 (1990): 271–95.
64. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 76–78; Calloway, Western Abenakis, 208, 213, 218–19; PGW, Rev. 18:45–46 (“willing to join”), 259 (Bayley’s recommendation); PCC, reel 24, item 14, 327; PCC, reel 159, item 147, 4:301; PCC, reel 170, item 152, 8:159; JCC 16:334–45; GW to Congress, Nov. 10, 1779 (“fidelity”), GWPLC; Writings of Washington 17:68–69, 82–83.
65. Haldimand Papers 21772:2–4.
66. Calloway, Western Abenakis, 210–11.
67. Neil Goodwin, We Go as Captives: The Royalton Raid and the Shadow War on the Revolutionary Frontier (Barre and Montpelier: Vermont Historical Society, 2010).
68. DAR 20:179–80, 249–50, 21:58.
69. “The Catholic Indians and the American Revolution,” The American Catholic Historical Researches, new ser., 4 (1908): 198–201; Richard I. Hunt, “Ambroise St-Aubin,” and “Pierre Tomah,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography 4:693, 735–36.
70. Grundset, African American and American Indian Patriots of the Revolutionary War, 14.
71. PGW, Rev. 2:186, 201; American Archives, ser. 5, 3:802; “Catholic Indians and the American Revolution,” 203.
72. PGW, Rev. 5:235, 266.
73. PGW, Rev. 5:201.
74. PGW, Rev. 5:270–71.
75. American Archives, 1:838–50, 3:800–807; PGW., Rev. 5:510–14n4; PCC, reel 166, item 152, 2:379–81; John Ferling, Independence: The Struggle to Set America Free (New York: Bloomsbury, 2011), 344 (Declaration read).
76. PGW, Rev. 6:483, 7:218–19, 361.
77. PGW, Rev. 7:433–34; American Archives, ser. 5, 3:1403–4.
78. DAR 15:185.
79. Hunt, “Pierre Tomah,” 736.
80. British Headquarters (Sir Guy Carleton) Papers, 1747 (1777)–1783, microfilm, 30 reels (Washington, DC: Recordak, 1957), reel 5, no. 1690; reel 8, no. 2838.
81. JCC 7:38–39; Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 36.
The Indian World of George Washington Page 73