130. CO 42/49:21–22 (“soldiers at your Backs”).
131. CVSP 4:202, 204, 212, 258–59; PCC, reel 85, item 7, 2:471; Haldimand Papers 21736:262–63; St. Clair Papers 2:19.
132. CO 42/67:177–82.
133. PGW, Confed. 4:398–400, 5:456–64 (vocabulary, etc.).
134. PGW, Confed. 6:29–32n; Henry P. Johnston, ed., The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay, 4 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1890–93), 3:320.
135. Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 5 (1836): 286–87.
136. PGW, Confed. 6:26–27. Washington sent the same requests for information to William Irvine; 6:34–35.
137. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:180–87; “Articles of Association by the Name of the Ohio Company,” Winthrop Sargent Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, reel 2, 652–58; Hulbert, Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company 1:4–12; Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 155–57.
138. Hulbert, Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company 1:12; Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:191–92.
139. Linklater, Measuring America, 51–53; Rowena Buell, ed., The Memoirs of Rufus Putnam and Certain Official Papers and Correspondence (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1903), 217, 223; Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:168, 174; PGW, Confed. 1:263–65n, 421–22.
140. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:192–95.
141. Nichols, Red Gentlemen and White Savages, 89.
142. PGW, Confed. 4:35.
143. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:137–45; PGW, Pres. 1:16; Writings of Washington 27:17.
144. JCC 31:891–92.
145. The speech of the united Indians is in ASPIA 1:8–9; CO 42/50:70–73, 87:324–26; EAID 18:356–58; and DHFFC 2:146–48.
146. Holton, Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution, 144.
147. JCC 33:399–401, 427–30; Territorial Papers 2:52–57.
148. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:296.
149. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:305; Sargent Papers, reel 2, 703–4; Cayton, Frontier Republic, 24–25.
150. “At a Meeting of the Directors and Agents of the OHIO COMPANY, held at the Bunch of Grapes Tavern in Boston, Aug. 29, 1787,” Early American Imprints, ser. 1, no. 20602; Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:319–22; Butler, Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company 1:13–17.
151. Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 157; Linklater, Measuring America, 80–81, estimates twelve cents an acre.
152. Cutler, Life, Journals and Correspondence 1:326. The company’s contract is in Hulbert, Records of the Original Proceedings of the Ohio Company 1:29–37.
153. Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 100.
154. “Ordinance of 1787,” in Territorial Papers 2:39–50; Onuf, Statehood and Union, ch. 3.
155. EAID 18:451–53, 455–58; ASPIA 1:16; JCC 32:328, 33:388–90, 477–81 (“politic and just” at 480).
156. Saler, Settlers’ Empire, 26–29.
157. Patrick Wolfe, “Against the Intentional Fallacy: Legocentrism and Continuity in the Rhetoric of Indian Dispossession,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 36 (2012): 3–45; Jeffrey Ostler, “ ‘Just and Lawful War’ as Genocidal War in the (United States) Northwest Ordinance and Northwest Territory, 1787–1832,” Journal of Genocide Research 18 (2016): 1–20.
158. Arthur St. Clair, A Narrative of the Manner in which the Campaign against the Indians, in the Year One Thousand Seven Hundred and Ninety-one, was Conducted, under the Command of Major General Arthur St. Clair (Philadelphia: n.p., 1812), 39.
159. PGW, Confed. 6:340–41.
160. Ferling, First of Men, 364.
161. Samuel Kirkland Papers, 1764–1837, Dartmouth College, Rauner Library, MS-867, file #5, 19–20.
Chapter 14: An Indian Policy for the New Nation
1. Cécile R. Ganteaume, Officially Indian: Symbols That Define the United States (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2017).
2. 100th Congress, 2nd Session, H. Con. Res. 331.
3. Iris Marion Young, “Hybrid Democracy: Iroquois Federalism and the Postcolonial Project,” in Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, ed. Duncan Ivinson, Paul Patton, and Will Sanders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 237–58. For different positions in the debate, see Elisabeth Tooker, “The United States Constitution and the Iroquois League,” Ethnohistory 35 (1988): 305–36; Bruce E. Johansen, “American Societies and the Evolution of Democracy in America, 1600–1800,” and Elisabeth Tooker, “Rejoinder to Johansen,” Ethnohistory 37 (1990), 279–90, 291–297; Donald A. Grinde and Bruce E. Johansen, Exemplar of Liberty: Native America and the Evolution of Democracy (Los Angeles: American Indian Studies Center, University of California, 1991); Forum, “The ‘Iroquois Influence’ Thesis—Con and Pro,” William and Mary Quarterly 53 (1996): 587–636.
4. Woody Holton, Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution (New York: Hill & Wang, 2007), 244–49; Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802 (New York: Free Press, 1975), ch. 5; Gregory Ablavsky, “Savage Constitution,” Duke Law Journal 63 (2014): 1067–71.
5. Ablavsky, “Savage Constitution,” 999–1089; Gregory Ablavsky, “Beyond the Indian Commerce Clause,” Yale Law Journal 124 (2014–15): 1012–90, quote at 1056; Jacob T. Levy, “Indians in Madison’s Constitutional Order,” in James Madison and the Future of Limited Government, ed. John Samples (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2002), 121–33; K. Tsianina Lomawaima, “Federalism: Native, Federal, and State Sovereignty,” in Why You Can’t Teach United States History without American Indians, ed. Susan Sleeper-Smith et al. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 273–83
6. Michael J. Klarman, The Framers’ Coup: The Making of the United States Constitution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Fergus M. Bordewich, The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), Madison quote at 5.
7. A “correct Copy of the Constitution” was prefixed to Acts Passed at a First Congress of the United States of America, 1789. Washington’s annotated copy is housed at the Fred W. Smith Library in Mount Vernon. PGW, Pres. 18:441 (“never can abandon”); Akhil Reed Amar, America’s Unwritten Constitution: The Precedents and Principles We Live By (New York: Basic Books, 2012), 309–10.
8. William T. Hutchinson et al., eds., The Papers of James Madison, 17 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press and Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1962–91), 12:398–99.
9. T. H. Breen, George Washington’s Journey: The President Forges a New Nation (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016).
10. Woody Holton, Unruly Americans and the Origins of the Constitution (New York: Hill & Wang, 2007).
11. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, 2 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 1:33, 50–51; Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years: The Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts, 1790–1834 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970), 43–45; Ablavsky, “Beyond the Indian Commerce Clause,” 1019–22; Francis G. Hutchins, Tribes and the American Constitution (Brookline, MA: Amarta Press, 2000), ch. 4.
12. Hutchinson et al., Papers of James Madison 11:45–46, 12:139, 444–45.
13. St. Clair Papers 2:64.
14. Hutchinson et al., Papers of James Madison,12:192.
15. Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 169.
16. Eliga H. Gould, Among the Powers of the Earth: The American Revolution and the Making of a New World Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Leonard J. Sadosky, Revolutionary Negotiations: Indians, Empires, and Diplomats in the Founding of America (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2009), Franklin quoted at 78; B
enjamin H. Irvin, Clothed in Robes of Sovereignty: The Continental Congress and the People Out of Doors (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 177–92; Peter Onuf and Nicholas Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World: The Law of Nations in an Age of Revolutions, 1776–1814 (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1993). Apparently, Washington neglected to return The Law of Nations. When the staff of the Washington museum at Mount Vernon heard about the overdue book, they were unable to locate it but purchased a second, identical copy, which was ceremoniously “returned” on May 20, 2010, 221 years late. The library waived the late fees. “George Washington’s 221-Year-Overdue Library Book: A Timeline,” The Week, May 21, 2010, http://theweek.com/articles/494173/george-washingtons-221year-overdue-library-book-timeline (accessed May 8, 2017).
17. Ablavsky, “Beyond the Indian Commerce Clause,” 1061–63, 1067–70; Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World, 108; S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 21–23.
18. Ian Hunter, “Vattel in Revolutionary America: From the Rules of War to the Rule of Law,” in Between Indigenous and Settler Governance, ed. Lisa Ford and Tim Rowse (New York: Routledge, 2013), 12–22.
19. Ablavsky, “Beyond the Indian Commerce Clause,” 1087; CVSP 3:488 (Clark).
20. Ablavsky, “Savage Constitution,” 1059.
21. Harold C. Syrett et al., eds., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 27 vols. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1961–87), 4:422.
22. Max M. Edling, A Hercules in the Cradle: War, Money, and the American State, 1783–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), chs. 1–3. Ablavsky, in “The Savage Constitution,” argues that whereas Madison wanted a strengthened federal government to protect Indians and states alike, Hamilton wanted to create a “fiscal-military state that would possess the means to dominate the borderlands at the Indians’ expense” (quote at 1007).
23. Stephen F. Knott and Tony Williams, Washington and Hamilton: The Alliance That Forged America (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2015).
24. John E. Ferling, The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 420. On these and other differences between the president and his secretary of state, see Thomas H. Fleming, The Great Divide: The Conflict between Washington and Jefferson That Defined a Nation (New York: Da Capo/Perseus, 2015). On Washington’s drive to build a national army, see William Hogeland, Autumn of the Black Snake: The Creation of the U.S. Army and the Invasion That Opened the West (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2017).
25. Alan Taylor, The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 2006), 281.
26. Isaac Weld Jr., Travels through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, during the years 1795, 1796, and 1797 (London: J. Stockdale, 1799), 12.
27. Reginald Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 1783–1812 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 30–46; EAID 18:458–59; Territorial Papers 2:78–79, 117; St. Clair Papers 2:37; ASPIA 1:9; JCC 33:711–12; DHFFC 2:148–49.
28. DHFFC 2:149–50; Territorial Papers 2:104–5, 117–18.
29. Territorial Papers 2:166.
30. EAID 18:481–97; ASPIA 1:5–10; St. Clair Papers 2:111–13; DHFFC 2:150–63; Territorial Papers 2:174–86, 192–93; Military Journal of Major Ebenezer Denny: An Officer in the Revolutionary and Indian Wars (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1859), 127–30; PGW, Pres. 2:196–98.
31. PGW, Pres. 3:580–89, quote at 585.
32. CO 42/65:59.
33. St. Clair Papers 2:124.
34. ASPIA 1:13.
35. St. Clair Papers 2:126.
36. Gould, Among the Powers of the Earth; JPP, 73.
37. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 53; PGW, Pres. 4:529, 5:76, 79; Knox Papers 53:164.
38. DHFFC 21:613–15.
39. Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Knopf, 1978), 145.
40. DHFFC 18:266–67.
41. DHFFC 19:1137, 1549, 1669.
42. Carla J. Mulford, Benjamin Franklin and the Ends of Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 312.
43. Berkhofer, White Man’s Indian, 33–69; Theda Perdue, “George Washington and the ‘Civilization’ of the Southern Indians,” in George Washington’s South, ed. Tamara Harvey and Greg O’Brien (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004), 313–15.
44. PGW, Confed. 2:198–222, 291–93, 392–396 (quote at 392), 3:92–93.
45. Edward G. Lengel, First Entrepreneur: How George Washington Built His—and the Nation’s—Prosperity (Boston: Da Capo, 2016), 164–65.
46. Joseph J. Ellis, American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies at the Founding of the Republic (New York: Random House, 2007), 138.
47. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 56–59; PGW, Pres. 2:490–94, 3:134–41; EAID 18:521–24, 526–30; ASPIA 1:12–14, 52–54; DHFFC 5:1003–7, 1116–21.
48. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 58.
49. ASPIA 1:54; Francis Paul Prucha, Indian Peace Medals in American History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 3–11, 73–87; George J. Fuld, “Washington Oval Peace Medals,” in Peace Medals: Negotiating Power in Early America, ed. Robert B. Pickering (Tulsa, OK: Gilcrease Museum, 2011), 49–62.
50. PGW, Pres. 3:398; DHFFC 3:138; ASPIA 1:12.
51. PGW, Pres. 4:51; ASPIA 1:58.
52. PGW, Pres. 4:543–45; Writings of Washington 30:491–94.
53. Ablavsky, “Beyond the Indian Commerce Clause,” 1041–42; PGW, Pres. 3:134–40 (Knox), 6:396 (GW to Mifflin), 11:272–73 (Randolph); ASPIA 1:231–32 (Knox).
54. David Andrew Nichols, Red Gentlemen and White Savages: Indians, Federalists, and the Search for Order on the American Frontier (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2008).
55. DHFFC 19:1549.
56. PGW, Pres. 8:35.
57. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, vol. 1, Atlantic America, 1492–1800 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), 408–9.
58. PGW, Pres. 3:316; Kohn, Eagle and Sword, 2–6; Robert Wooster, The American Military Frontiers: The United States Army in the West, 1783–1900 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010), xii.
59. Quoted in Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 111.
60. William H. Guthman, March to Massacre: A History of the First Seven Years of the United States Army, 1784–1791 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), 174; James Ripley Jacobs, The Beginning of the U. S. Army, 1783–1812 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947), 50; Russell F. Weigley, History of the United States Army (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), 90. Knox’s plan for organization of the militia is in American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States, Class 5: Military Affairs, ed. Walter Lowrie and Matthew St. Clair Clarke, 7 vols. (Washington: Gales & Seaton, 1832), 1:6–13 (quotes at 7).
61. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 95–103.
62. Terry Bouton, “The Trials of the Confederation,” in The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution, ed. Edward G. Gray and Jane Kamensky (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 375; The Diary of William Maclay and Other Notes on Senate Debates, in DHFFC 9:346.
63. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 140–43; Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Random House, 2000), ch. 2.
64. Wood, Empire of liberty, 143–45.
65. Ellis, Founding Brothers, ch. 3.
66. ASPIA 1:47–48.
67. PGW, Pres. 2:325–28; CVSP 4:619; DHFFC 2:185–88.
68. PGW, Pres. 2:328, 388. It has been suggested that the Rising Fawn of Great Highwassa was also known as Standing Turkey; PGW, Pres. 2:388n.
69. PGW, Pres. 3:516–17.
70. PGW, Pres. 3:
137.
71. PGW, Pres. 3:521–22.
72. PGW, Pres. 3:561, 4:468–69.
73. William S. Coker and Thomas D. Watson, Indian Traders of the Southeastern Spanish Borderlands: Panton, Leslie & Company and John Forbes & Company, 1783–1847 (Pensacola: University of West Florida Press, 1986), 160; Kristofer Ray, Middle Tennessee, 1775–1825: Progress and Popular Democracy on the Southwestern Frontier (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2007), 19–21.
74. Territorial Papers 4:24.
75. Alice Barnwell Keith et al., eds., The John Gray Blount Papers, 3 vols. (Raleigh, NC: State Department of Archives and History, 1959–65), 2:118.
76. Keith, John Gray Blount Papers 2:131.
77. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 71.
78. PGW, Ret. 2:598; Pickering Papers 23:134.
79. PGW, Pres. 7:151; Territorial Papers 4:41.
80. James Thomas Flexner, George Washington and the New Nation, 1783–1793 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969), 261.
81. DHFFC 5:988–90; N. Bruce Duthu, American Indians and the Law (New York: Viking/Penguin, 2008), 66–67.
82. PGW, Pres. 9:68–69.
83. Ray, Middle Tennessee, 21.
84. PGW, Pres. 9:110–16; Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years, 46.
85. PGW, Pres. 11:342–48; quote at 344–45.
86. Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years, 47, 53.
87. Paul A. W. Wallace, ed., Thirty Thousand Miles with John Heckewelder; or, Travels amoung the Indians of Pennsylvania, New York & Ohio in the 18th Century (Lewisburg, PA: Wennawoods Publishing, 1998), 227.
88. Margaret Connell Szasz, Indian Education in the American Colonies, 1607–1783 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988); James Axtell, “Dr. Wheelock’s Little Red School,” in The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 87–109; Colin G. Calloway, The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2010).
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