B006NTJT4U EBOK

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by Jackson, Julian


  Building a Clandestine State

  Part V Liberation and After

  Introduction

  22 Towards Liberation: January to June 1944

  The Milice State: Darnand and Henriot

  Glières: ‘Defeat of arms, victory of souls’

  Springtime of Fear

  April 1944: Pétain in Paris

  The Communists

  What Kind of Insurrection?

  23 Liberations

  Uprisings and Massacres

  COMAC v London

  Micro-Histories

  De Gaulle in Bayeux

  The Last Days of Vichy

  Liberation and Insurrection

  The Liberation of Paris

  Vichy-Sigmaringen: From One Spa to Another

  24 A New France?

  Restoring order

  The Purges I: Myth and Reality

  The Purges II: Cleansing the Community

  The Purges III: The Trials

  Intellectuals in the Dock

  The Liberation Betrayed?

  Epilogue Remembering the Occupation

  Constructing Memory

  Dissenting Memories I: The Resistance

  Dissenting Memories II: Pétainists and Collaborators

  Buried Memories: The Victims

  Fragmented Memories

  Memory on Trial

  Obsessive Memory

  Mitterrand’s Memories

  The Papon Trial

  The Resistance Syndrome

  In Search of the True France

  Appendix: The Camps of Vichy France

  Bibliographical Essay

  Index

  List of Maps and Figure

  Maps

  1 French départements

  2 Occupied France

  3 The Camps of Vichy France

  Figure

  1 The organization of the Resistance and the Free French at the end of 1943

  Abbreviations

  The numbers in brackets refer to the page in the text where it first appears with an English translation or explanation.

  ACA

  Assemblée des cardinales et archevêques [268]

  ACJF

  Association catholique de la jeunesse française [270]

  ADMP

  Association pour défendre la mémoire du Maréchal Pétain [609]

  AI

  Action immédiate [502]

  AMGOT

  Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories [527]

  ANAPF

  Alliance nationale pour l’accroissement de la population Française [31]

  ANOD

  Association nationale pour l’organisation de la démocratie [51]

  AO

  Action ouvrière [411]

  AS

  Armée secrète [436]

  ATP

  Arts et traditions populaires [30]

  BCRA

  Bureau central de renseignements et d’action [432]

  BCRAM

  Bureau central de renseignements et d’action militaire [400]

  BIP

  Bureau d’information et de presse [431]

  BS

  Brigades spéciales [158]

  CAD

  Centre d’action et de documentation [200]

  CAS

  Comité d’action socialiste [119]

  CCDM

  Comité central des mouvements de Résistance [465]

  CDJC

  Centre de documentation juive contemporaine [14]

  CDL

  Comité départemental de Libération [518]

  CDLL

  Ceux de la Libération [413]

  CDLR

  Ceux de la Résistance [413]

  CEES

  Comité d’études éonomiques et sociales [297]

  CF

  Croix de feu [72]

  CFA

  Comité franco-allemand [88]

  CFL

  Corps franc de la Libération [540]

  CFLN

  Comité français de la Libération nationale [459]

  CFTC

  Confédération française des travailleurs chrétiens [270]

  CGE

  Comité général d’études [431]

  CGQ J

  Commissariat général aux questions juives [357]

  CGT

  Confédération générale du travail [46]

  CGTU

  Confédération générale du travail unitaire [66]

  CIMADE

  Comité intermouvement auprès des évacués [377]

  CLL

  Comité local de Libération [538]

  CMN

  Comité national militaire (of FTP) [423]

  CMR

  Comité médical de la Résistance [199]

  CND

  Confrérie Notre Dame [400]

  CNE

  Comité national des écrivains [499]

  CNIE

  Commission nationale interprofessionnelle d’épuration [590]

  CNR

  Conseil national de la Résistance [456]

  CNU

  Comité national de l’urbanisme [348]

  CO

  Comité d’organisation [162]

  COIC

  Comité d’organisation du cinéma [318]

  COMAC

  Commission d’action militaire [521]

  COSI

  Comité ouvrier de secours immédiat [297]

  CPL

  Comité parisien de Libération [519]

  CRI

  Commissariat technique à la reconstruction immobilière [317]

  CRIF

  Conseil représentatif des Israélites de France [613]

  CRS

  Compagnie republicaine de securité [260]

  CSAR

  Comité secret d’action révolutionnaire [77]

  CSC

  Comité syndical de coordination [296]

  CSEIC

  Conseil supérieur de l’économie industrielle et commerciale [163]

  CSP

  Centre syndical du propagande [197]

  CVR

  Combattant volontaire de la Résistance [477]

  DGEN

  Délégation général à l’équipement national [162]

  DGREFA

  Délégation générale aux relations économiques franco-allemandes [186]

  DGSS

  Direction générale des services spéciales [461]

  DMN

  Délégué militaire national [521]

  DMR

  Délégué militaire de région [520]

  DMZ

  Délegué militaire de zone [520]

  EMFFI

  État-Major des forces françaises de l’intérieur [547]

  EIF

  Éclaireurs israélites de France [160]

  ENA

  École nationale d’administration [595]

  ERC

  Emergency Rescue Committee [300]

  FFI

  Forces françaises de l’intérieur [505]

  FN

  Front national [444]

  FNC

  Fédération nationale catholique [68]

  FNSP

  Fondation nationale des sciences politiques (11)

  FRN

  Front national révolutionnaire [220]

  FST

  Front social du travail [197]

  FTP

  Franc-Tireurs et partisans [368]

  GMR

  Groupes mobiles de réserve [260]

  GPRF

  Gouvernement provisoire de la République française [543]

  GTE

  Groupement de travailleurs étrangers [150]

  IEQ J

  Institut d’études des questions juives [200]

  IEQJER

  Institut d’étude des questions juives et ethno-raciales [358]

  IHTP

  Institut d’histoire du temps présent [7]

  INED

  Institut national d’études démographiqu
es [597]

  JEC

  Jeunesse étudiante chrétienne [414]

  JFOM

  Jeunesse de France et d’Outremer [160]

  LVF

  Légion de volontaires français [194]

  MBF

  Militärbefehlshaber in Frankreich [470]

  MLN

  Mouvement de Libération nationale [170]

  MNCR

  Mouvement national contre le racisme [369]

  MNRPDG

  Mouvement national de résistance des prisonniers de guerre [514]

  MOI

  Main d’oeuvre immigrée [365]

  MRP

  Mouvement républicain populaire [511]

  MSR

  Mouvement social révolutionnaire [192]

  MUR

  Mouvements unis de la Résistance [496]

  NAP

  Noyautage des administrations publiques [411]

  NRF

  Nouvelle revue française [38]

  OCM

  Organisation civile et militaire [413]

  OCPRI

  Office central de répartition des produits industriels [162]

  OFI

  Office central d’information [253]

  OG

  Operational Group [548]

  OJC

  Organisation juive de combat [368]

  ORA

  Organisation de Résistance de l’armée [505]

  OS

  Organisation spéciale [423]

  OSE

  Oeuvre de secours aux enfants [370]

  OSS

  Office of Strategic Services [408]

  PCF

  Parti communiste français [66]

  PPF

  Parti populaire français [78]

  PQJ

  Police aux questions juives [260]

  PDP

  Parti démocrate populaire [70]

  PKWN

  Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego [494]

  PNB

  Parti national breton [248]

  POWN

  Polska organizacja walki o niepodlogosc [494]

  PSF

  Parti social français [74]

  RNP

  Rassemblement national populaire [193]

  RPF

  Rassemblement du peuple français [603]

  SAP

  Section d’atterrisage et de parachutage [548]

  SAS

  Special Air Services [548]

  SCAP

  Service du contrôle des administrateurs provisoires [356]

  SD

  Sicherheitsdienst [170]

  SEC

  Service d’enquête et de contrôle [260]

  SFIO

  Section française de l’internationale ouvrière [197]

  SGJ

  Secrétariat général à la jeunesse [149]

  SNM

  Service national du maquis [453]

  SOAM

  Service des opérations aériennes et maritimes [435]

  SOE

  Special Operations Executive [400]

  SOL

  Service d’ordre légionnaire [230]

  SPAC

  Service de police anticommuniste [260]

  SRMAN

  Service de répression des menées antinationales [261]

  SSS

  Service des sociétés secrètes [260]

  STO

  Service du travail obligatoire [228]

  TA

  Travail allemand [494]

  UDSR

  Union démocratique et sociale de la Résistance [594]

  UFF

  Union des femmes françaises [508]

  UGIF

  Union générale des Israélites de France [357]

  UNE

  Union nacional española [495]

  UNR

  Union nationale de la Résistance [470]

  UNSA

  Union nationale des syndicats agricoles (290)

  WT

  Wireless Transmission [435]

  Abbreviations used in footnotes

  EHQ

  European History Quarterly

  FHS

  French Historical Studies

  GMCC

  Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains

  HJ

  Historical Journal

  JCH

  Journal of Contemporary History

  JMH

  Journal of Modern History

  MS

  Mouvement social

  RHDGM

  Revue d’histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale

  RHMC

  Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine

  VEF

  J-P. Azéma and F. Bédarida, Le Régime de Vichy et les Français (1993)

  VSRH

  Vingtième siècle, revue d’histoire

  Map 1 French départements

  Map 2 Occupied France

  Introduction: Historians and the Occupation

  In France, the period between 1940 and 1944 is known as the ‘Dark Years’. The prosecutor at the post-war trial of Marshal Pétain, André Mornet, entitled his memoirs ‘Four Years to Erase from our History’.1 There was a lot to erase. In 1940, after a battle lasting only six weeks, France suffered a catastrophic military defeat. An armistice was signed with Germany, and half of France, including Paris, was occupied by German troops. In the other half, a supposedly independent French government, headed by Marshal Pétain, installed itself in the spa town of Vichy. The Vichy government liquidated France’s democratic institutions, persecuted Freemasons, Jews, and Communists, and embarked on a policy of collaboration with Germany. Eventually 650,000 civilian French workers were compulsorily drafted to work in German factories; 75,000 Jews from France perished in Auschwitz; 30,000 French civilians were shot as hostages or members of the Resistance; another 60,000 were deported to German concentration camps.

  André Mornet’s desire to erase these years from history was widely shared. De Gaulle tried to do the same. In August 1944, his provisional government issued an ordinance declaring that all Vichy’s legislation was null and void: history would resume where it had stopped in 1940. When de Gaulle was asked in liberated Paris to announce the restoration of the French Republic, he refused—on the grounds that it had never ceased to exist. This legal fiction became the foundation of a heroic reinterpretation of the Dark Years. According to this reinterpretation, most of the horrors inflicted on France had been the work of the Germans alone; de Gaulle and the Resistance had incarnated the real France; and the mass of the French people, apart from a handful of traitors, had been solidly behind them, whether in thought or in deed. Even Mornet contradicted the title to his own memoirs, by stating in the epigraph that the Resistance had made the period between 1940 and 1944 ‘years to inscribe in our history’. This Resistance myth reached its apogee in the 1960s when de Gaulle was president of the Fifth Republic. In 1964, the remains of Jean Moulin, who had been de Gaulle’s envoy to the Resistance, were transferred to the Panthéon where France’s national heroes are buried.

  The heroic myth ignored too many inconvenient realities to survive for ever—during the Occupation Mornet himself offered his legal services to the prosecution at the Riom trial where Vichy had put its political enemies in the dock—and it started to crumble in the 1970s. A catalyst in this process was Marcel Ophuls’s documentary film The Sorrow and the Pity. Arguably one of the most important historical documentaries ever made, Ophuls’s three-hour film, released in 1971, was a craftily constructed work which presented the French population during the Occupation in an unprecedentedly unfavourable light, depicting them as predominantly selfish and attentiste. Ophuls delighted in capturing on screen people’s attempts to rewrite their past. The film had been made for television, but it was so iconoclastic that the authorities refused to broadcast it, and it was not televised in France until 1981. The Sorrow and the Pity was part of the 1968 mood of youth rebellion: de Gaulle was president, and it was his version of the past that
was being challenged. A second film with a great impact was Louis Malle’s Lacombe Lucien (1974), the story of an adolescent peasant boy who becomes a collaborator by chance not conviction. Returning on his bicycle from an attempt to join the Resistance, he has a puncture, stumbles upon some Germans, and ends up working for them instead. The film depicts an amoral world without heroes where destiny is arbitrary.2

 

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