On universities see A. Guesclin, Les Facs sous Vichy: Actes du colloque des universités de Clermont Ferrand et de Strasbourg, novembre 1993 (Clermont, 1994). The most comprehensive study of the Uriage school is B. Comte, Une utopie combattante: L’École des cadres d’Uriage (1991). For a critical approach see J. Hellman, The Knight-Monks of Vichy France (1993). On Mounier and Vichy see M. Winock, Histoire politique de la revue Esprit 1930–1950 (1975) and M. Bergès, Vichy contre Mounier: Les Non-Conformistes face aux années 40 (1997). See also some of Mounier’s own writings in Mounier et sa génération: Lettres, carnets et inédits (1956).
The Jews
There is now a massive bibliography on this subject. S. Zuccotti, The Holocaust, the French and the Jews (New York, 1993) and A. Kaspi, Les Juifs pendant l’Occupation (1991), offer excellent general accounts. M. Marrus and R. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York, 1981) is the starting point for a study of the policies of the regime towards the Jews. S. Klarsfeld, Vichy-Auschwitz: Le Rôle de Vichy dans la solution finale en France, 2 vols. (1983–5) gives the most detailed account of Vichy’s role in the Holocaust. On internment camps see A. Grynberg, Les Camps de la honte: Les Intérnés juifs des camps français (1991).
On anti-Jewish propagandists see P.-A. Taguieff (ed.), L’Antisémitisme de plume (1999) and J. Billig’s collection of documents on the German sponsored anti-Jewish institute, L’Institut d’étude des questions juives (1974). R. Poznanski, Être juif en France pendant la Deuxième Guerre mondiale (1994) and A. Cohen, Persécutions et sauvetages: Juifs et Français sous l’occupation et sous Vichy (1993) are two excellent books looking at the reactions of French society, Jews and non-Jews, to the persecution of the Jews.
On education and the Jews see C. Singer, Vichy, l’université et les juifs (1992) and on lawyers R. Badinter, Un anti-sémitisme ordinaire: Vichy et les avocats juifs 1940–1944 (1997). Two useful local studies are D. Ryan, The Holocaust and the Jews of Marseilles (Champaign, Ill., 1996) and J. Adler, The Jews of Paris and the Final Solution: Communal Responses and Internal Conflicts, 1940–1944 (New York, 1985). Two poignant and illuminating diaries by Jews are R.-R. Lambert, Carnet d’un témoin (1985) and J. Biélinky, Journal, 1940–1942: Un journaliste juif sous l’occupation (1992). See also the memoirs of A. Kriegel, Ce que j’ai cru comprendre (1991).
Resistance and the Free French
J.-L. Crémieux-Brilhac, La France libre: De l’appel du 18 juin à la Libération (1996) surpasses any other histories of the Free French. The Complete War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle (New York, 1967 edn.) are indispensable. The memoirs of de Gaulle’s intelligence chief Passy also contain a lot of useful information: Colonel Passy (A. Dewarvin), 2e Bureau Londres (1947); 10 Duke Street Londres (1948); Missions secrètes en France (1951). The best biography of de Gaulle for this period is J. Lacouture, De Gaulle, i. The Rebel (1989).
There is no satisfactory single-volume history of the Resistance. H. Noguères (with M. Degliame-Fouché), Histoire de la Résistance en France de 1940 à 1945, 5 vols. (1967–81) provides a detailed month-by-month chronicle but no interpretation. H. R. Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France (1978), is the best starting point and offers the most penetrating account of the early days of the Resistance even if it only covers the Southern Zone up to the end of 1942. The series of conferences on the Resistance which took place between 1993 and 1997 have transformed the social history of the Resistance. Their proceedings have been published as J.-M. Guillon and P. Laborie, Mémoire et histoire: La Résistance (Toulouse, 1995); J. Sainclivier and C. Bougeard, La Résistance et les Français: Enjeux stratégiques et environnement social (Rennes, 1995); R. Frank and J. Gotovitch, La Résistance et les Européens du Nord, 2 vols. (1994–6); F. Marcot (ed.), La Résistance et les Francais: Lutte armée et maquis (1996); L. Douzou, et al. (eds.), La Résistance et les Francais: Villes, centres et logiques de décision (1995); J.-M. Guillon and R. Mencherini, La Résistance et les Européens du sud (1999). See also the articles collected in ‘Pour une histoire sociale de la Résistance’, MS 180 (1997).
The best histories of particular Resistance movements are O. Wieviorka, Une certaine idée de la résistance: Défense de la France 1940–1949 (1995), L. Douzou, La Désobéissance: Histoire d’un mouvement et d’un journal clandestins: Libération-Sud (1940–1944) (1995) and A. Aglan, La Résistance sacrifiée: Le Mouvement Libération-Nord (1999). But R. Bédarida, Les Armes de l’esprit: Témoignage chrétien 1941–1944 (1977) and D. Veillon, Le Franc-Tireur, un journal clandestin un mouvement de résistance, 1940–1944 (1977) also remain valuable. There is urgent need for an updated history of Combat. For a good study of a Resistance network (as opposed to movement) see A. Aglan, Mémoires résistantes, le réseau Jade-Fitzroy (1940–1944) (1994).
On the political and social ideas of the Resistance, H. Michel and B. Mirkine-Guetzévitch, Les Idées politiques et sociales de la Résistance (1954) and H. Michel, Les Courants de pensée de la Résistance (1962) still remain useful. On ideas for post-war reform see A. Shennan, Rethinking France: Plans for Renewal 1940–1946 (Oxford, 1989). On ideas about education see J.-M. Muracciole, Les Enfants de la défaite: La Résistance, l’éducation et la culture (1998). For the CNR Charter see C. Andrieu, Le Programme commun de la Résistance: Des idées dans la guerre (1985). For the projects of the CGE see D. de Bellescize, Les Neuf Sages de la Résistance: Le Comité général d’études dans la clandestinité (1979).
On what might be called the high politics of the Resistance J. Sweets, The Politics of Resistance in France 1940–1944: A History of the Mouvements Unis de la Résistance (De Kalb, Ill., 1976) is good. But the essential book on this subject is now Daniel Cordier, Jean Moulin: L’Inconnu du Panthéon, 3 vols. (1989–93). Ostensibly a biography of Moulin, Cordier’s massive study is also a minute account of the conflicts between the Free French and the Resistance, and between the Resistance movements themselves. The 300-page preface to the first volume gives the arguments of the seven volumes to follow. In fact only two more appeared, and instead Cordier produced another book Jean Moulin: La République des catacombes (1999) which recapitulated the first three volumes and covered the ground which had been projected for the four subsequent volumes. Whatever one thinks of Cordier’s angle of approach, his book is now, as the French say, incontournable. One effect of the cult of Moulin has been to squeeze out the memory of other important intermediaries between the Free French and the Resistance. One of these, Brossolette is the subject of a good recent biography, G. Piketty, Pierre Brossolette: Un héros de la Résistance (1998). Another has left a short memoir recently published by the IHTP: Souvenirs inédits d’Yvon Morandat, ed. L. Douzou (1994).
On the Communists and the Resistance see S. Courtois, Le PCF dans la guerre: De Gaulle, la Résistance, Staline (1980) and D. Virieux’s massive ‘Le Front national de la lutte pour la liberté et l’indépendance de la France: Un mouvement de Résistance. Période clandestine (mai 1941–août 1944)’ (unpublished thesis, University of Paris-VIII). On the Socialists see M. Sadoun, Les Socialistes sous l’Occupation: Résistance et collaboration (1982).
On foreigners in the Resistance see S. Courtois, D. Peschanski, A. Rayski, Le Sang de l’étranger: Les Immigrés de la MOI dans la Résistance (1989) and A. Wieviorka, Ils étaient juifs, résistants, communistes (1986). On women see M. Weitz, Sisters in the Resistance: How Women fought to free France 1940–1945 (New York, 1995); P. Schwartz, ‘Women, Resistance and Communism in France 1939–1945’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York, 1998). For a memoir by a female resister see L. Aubrac, Outwitting the Gestapo (Lincoln, Nebr., 1993). On writers and the Resistance see A. Simonin, Les Éditions de minuit: Le Devoir d’insoumission (1994), J. Debû-Bridel, La Résistance intellectuelle, textes et témoignages (1970), M. Atack, Literature and the French Resistance: Cultural Politics and Narrative Forms, 1940–1950 (Manchester, 1989), and J. Steel, Littératures de l’ombre: Récits et nouvelles de la Résistance (1991). But Sapiro is best on this subject, as on all matters affecting wr
iters.
One good way to approach the history of the Resistance is through local studies. The best of these is J.-M. Guillon, ‘La Résistance dans le Var: Essai d’histoire politique’ (Doctorat d’État, Aix, 1989). Although unpublished, this monumental work is one of the most important studies of the Resistance. See also J. Sainclivier, La Résistance en Ille-et-Vilaine 1940–1944 (Rennes, 1993) and F. Marcot, La Résistance dans le Jura (Besançon, 1985). Sensitivity to locality is also one of the most important features of H. R. Kedward, In Search of the Maquis: Rural Resistance in Southern France (Oxford, 1993).
Among memoirs of resisters, C. Bourdet, L’Aventure incertaine: De la Résistance à la restauration (1975) is in a class of its own because it combines a personal memoir with serious reflection on the nature of the Resistance, and rises above the tendency to anecdote, mythologization, or recrimination which is otherwise common. Other memoirs well worth reading are H. Frenay, The Night Will End (1976), C. d’Aragon, La Résistance sans héroïsme (1979), C. Pineau, La Simple Vérité 1940–1945 (1961), G. de Bénouville, Le Sacrifice du matin (1946), and J.-P. Lévy, Mémoires d’un franc-tireur: Itinéraire d’un résistant (1998).
Liberation
The change in research agendas over the last twenty years is striking if one compares Comité d’histoire de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, La Libération de la France: Actes du colloque international tenu à Paris du 28 octobre au 31 octobre 1974 (1976) with H. R. Kedward and N. Wood (eds.), The Liberation of France: Image and Event (Oxford, 1995). These are both important collective volumes devoted to the Liberation. The emphasis of the first one is political and military while the second one concentrates on gender and representations. H. Footitt and J. Simmonds, France 1943–1945 (Leicester, 1988) has a lot to say about liberated France as seen by the Allies. J. Kayser, Un journaliste sur le front de Normandie: Carnet de route juillet–août 1944 (1991) gives the first impressions of liberated Normandy by a French journalist who had spent the war in London. A. Brossat, Libération, fête folle. 6 juin 1944–8 mai 1945: Mythes et rites ou le grand théâtre des passions populaires (1994) gives a good picture of the joyous atmosphere of the Liberation. On the intentions of the Communist Party at the Liberation see P. Buton, Les Lendemains qui déchantent: Le Parti communiste à la Libération (1993). P. Buton and J.-M. Guillon (eds.), Les Pouvoirs en France à la Libération (1994), studies post-Liberation conflicts in a whole series of départements.
There are studies of Liberation for almost every département of France. These all contain useful information, but tend to be somewhat descriptive. In a class of its own is L. Capdevila, Les Bretons au lendemain de l’Occupation: Imaginaire et comportement d’une sortie de guerre 1944–1945 (Rennes, 1999). This is a brilliant study which has some extremely interesting things to say about representations of collaboration and resistance after Liberation. It is also illuminating on the subject of the head-shavings. On these see also F. Virgili, ‘Les Tontes de la Libération en France’, Cahiers de l’IHTP, 31 (1995), 53–64; A. Brossat, Les Tondues: Un carnaval moche (1992). On the purges as a whole P. Novick, The Resistance versus Vichy: The Purge of Collaborators in Liberated France (New York, 1968) is still worth reading but needs to be supplemented by H. Rousso, ‘L’Épuration en France: Une histoire inachevée’, VSRH 33 (1992), 106–17 and F. Rouquet, L’Épuration dans l’administration française (1993).
Memory
H. Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome (1991) invented the subject and still remains the essential starting point, to be supplemented by the more polemical H. Rousso and E. Conan, Vichy: A Past that will not Pass (1998). Rousso’s latest thoughts on the subject are in H. Rousso, La Hantise du passé (1998). On commemorating the past see G. Namer, La Commémoration en France de 1945 à nos jours (1987) and S. Barcellini and A. Wieviorka, Passant, souviens-toi! Les Lieux de souvenir de la Seconde Guerre mondiale en France (1995). On the Occupation remembered in the cinema see S. Lindeperg, Les Écrans de l’ombre: La Seconde Guerre mondiale dans le cinéma français (1997). On Jewish memory see A. Wieviorka, Déportation et génocide: Entre la mémoire et l’oubli (1992). For reflections on the recent trials for crimes against humanity see R. J. Golsan, Memory, the Holocaust, and French Justice (Hanover, NH, 1996), A. Finkielkraut, Remembering in Vain: The Klaus Barbie Trial and Crimes against Humanity (New York, 1992), and N. Wood, Vectors of Memory (Oxford, 1999).
Index
Abadi, Moussa 370, 376
Abetz, Otto 180, 220, 269, 478
becomes ambassador 170
before 1940 85, 88
and collaborationists 193, 198, 200, 204, 205
‘Francophilia’ of 171
and Laval 172, 173, 175, 186
limited influence of 175, 179, 186, 222, 554
misreads French policy 184
negotiates with Communists 421
policy towards France 171, 174
protests against dismissal of Laval 175
recalled to Germany 222
returns to France 232
abortion 329, 332–3, 596
Académie Française 49, 153, 213, 303, 482, 609, 610
Alain [Émile Chartier] 87–8, 92, 114, 208, 240
Albertini, Georges 608
Albrecht, Bertie 404, 407, 461, 491
Alibert, Raphaël 53, 127, 152, 155, 175, 355
Alphand, Hervé 517
Altman, Georges 411
Ambroselli, Gérard 307
Amiot, Félix 295
Amouroux, Henri 620, 624
Anjot, Capt. Maurice 532, 533
Anouilh, Jean 210, 310, 315, 387
anti-Communism, see Communists
anti-Americanism 36–7, 40–1, 84, 95
anti-semitism, see Jews
Aragon, Louis 57, 62, 209, 305, 306, 314, 316, 345, 490, 498, 500, 501, 502, 507, 592, 598, 607
Ardant, Henri 293
Ariès, Philippe 48
Arland, Marcel 38
Arletty 311, 335, 583, 589
Aron Raymond 58, 60, 209, 366, 395, 396
Aron Robert 9, 11–12, 14, 37, 57, 58–9, 60, 62, 63, 301, 577
artisans 164–5
Astier de la Vigerie, Emmanuel 405, 406, 429, 430, 431, 435, 437, 445, 452, 454, 455, 461, 474, 502, 529, 542
in Algiers 464, 506, 516
background of 403–4
builds links with unions 410, 411
relations with Frenay 426, 436, 456
Aubrac, Raymond 406, 444, 473, 506, 629–30
Aubrac, Lucie 491, 506, 629–30
Aubry, Henri 462
Augier, Marc 190
Aumont, Jean-Pierre 301
Auphan, Admiral Gabriel 554
Autant-Lara, Claude 322
Avril, Henri 573, 574
Aymé, Marcel 604, 609, 201
Bainville, Jacques 49
Balladur, Edouard 631
Barbie, Klaus 361, 461, 491, 616–17, 629
Bard, Admiral François 147
Bardet, Gérard 163
Bardèche, Maurice 610
Bardoux, Jacques 56, 57
Barnaud, Jacques 100, 148, 186, 293
Barrault, Jean-Louis 312, 315, 316, 323, 324
Barrès, Maurice 31, 97, 105, 109, 110
Barthélemy, Joseph 50, 51, 56, 57, 90, 148, 153, 213, 227, 262, 331
Barthou, Louis 90
Basch, Victor 23, 530
Basset, Raymond 556
Bastid, Paul 515
Bataille, Georges 346
Baudoin, Madeleine 540
Baudouin, Paul 121, 148, 153, 168, 173
Baudrillart, Cardinal Alfred 269, 301
Bayllot, Georges 336
Bazaine, Jean 317
Bazin, André 322
Beauvoir, Simone de 272, 586
Béguin, Albert 305
Belin, René 80, 92, 93, 99, 100, 146, 154, 155, 161, 252, 296, 331
Belot, Odette 493
Benda, Julien 97–8, 307
Benédite, David 300
Benfredj, Charles 628
Benjamin, René 112, 279
Benoist, Charles 44–5, 50, 51, 55, 56, 57
Benoist-Méchin, Jacques 148, 158, 175, 180, 181, 182, 213, 220–1, 553, 587
Benoît, Pierre Marie- 377
Bénouville, Pierre Guillain de 440, 455, 629
Bérard, Léon 66, 156, 311
Béraud, Henri 586
Bergeret, General Jean 147
Bergery, Gaston 62, 92, 114, 143, 161, 209
Bergès, Michel 624
Bergelson, David 366
Bergson, Henri 601
Berl, Emmanuel 97–8, 149
Berliet, Marius 292, 295
Berlioz, Hector 537
Bernanos, Georges 301
Bernard, Jacqueline 492
Bertaux, Philippe 560, 574
Berthelot, Jean 99, 148, 153, 252
Best, Werner 170
Beuve-Méry, Hubert 342, 343, 350, 351, 509, 599
Bichelonne, Jean 99, 163–4, 165, 214, 228, 229, 264, 553
Bidault, Georges 8, 464, 465, 473, 474, 537, 562, 571, 607
Biélinky, Jacques 249, 286, 316, 373, 375
Billoux, François 537
Bingen, Jacques 386, 462, 463, 464, 520, 521, 534
Blanchot, Maurice 63
Bloch, Marc 77, 150, 317, 318, 367, 405, 513
Bloch, Marcel 295
Bloch-Lainé, François 264
Blocq-Mascart, Maxime 413, 456, 465, 473, 474, 540
Blondin, Antoine 609
Blum, Léon 52, 93, 101, 102, 105, 124, 132, 151, 363, 587
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