See also: Prophets: Mani; Religion: Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Avesta
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Some Reflections on Zurvanism.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 19.2 (1957): 304–316.
Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 2001.
Colpe, Carsten. “Development of Religious Thought.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(II), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 819–865. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques. “Notes on Zurvanism.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 15.2 (1956): 108–112.
Frye, Richard Nelson. The History of Ancient Iran. München: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1984.
Shaki, Mansour. “Dahri.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2002, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dahri-ar.
Widengren, G. “Manichaeism and Its Iranian Background.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(2), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 965–990. London: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Zaehner, R. C. Zurvan: A Zoroastrian Dilemma. Cheshire: Biblo-Moser, 1972.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
PRIMARY DOCUMENTS
1. THE GATHAS OF ZARATHUSTRA FROM THE ZOROASTRIAN AVESTA
The Gathas constitute the oldest section of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy scripture. They are believed to have been composed by the ancient Iranian prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster) as his personal hymns and meditations. The word gatha has been translated as “hymn,” “poem,” or even “psalm.” Zarathustra’s Gathas “are short verse texts, cast largely in the form of utterances addressed by him to Ahura Mazda; and they convey, through inspired poetry, visions of God and his purposes, and prophecies of things to come, here and hereafter” (Mary Boyce, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism [Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1990], 1). In the excerpt below, Zarathustra appears before the great god Ahura Mazda (wise lord, lord wisdom) with an appeal for divine guidance. The Iranian prophet speaks on behalf of those who raise cattle (kine). Zarathustra decries the violent attacks they are forced to endure and pleads for the intervention of the benevolent and wise lord on behalf of truth and righteousness.
THE GĀTHAS.
YASNA XXIX
THE WAIL OF THE KINE. THE CALL OF ZARTHUSTRA. HIS PRAYER FOR AID.
1. Unto you (O Ahura and Asha!) the Soul of the Kine (our sacred herds and folk) cried aloud: For whom did ye create me, and by whom did ye fashion me? On me comes the assault of wrath, and of violent power, the blow of desolation, audacious insolence, and (thievish) might. None other pasture-giver have I than you, therefore do ye teach me good (tillage) for the fields (my only hope of welfare)!
Ahura Speaks.
2. Upon this the Creator of the Kine (the holy herds) asked of Righteousness: How (was) thy guardian for the Kine (appointed) by thee when, as having power (over all her fate), ye made her? (In what manner did ye secure) for her, together with pasture, a cattle-chief who was both skilled and like-wise energetic? Whom did you select as her (life’s) master who might hurl back the fury of the wicked?
Ahura answers.
3. To Him the (Divine Righteousness) answered with his sanctity. (Great was our perplexity); a chieftain who was capable of smiting back (their fury), and who was himself without hate (was not to be obtained by us); among such things as these, those things are not to be known (by beings such as we) which are the influences which approach (and move) the lofty fires (revealing the favour and the will of God).
Of beings He is the mightiest to whom those who have performed their actions approach with invocations. (He has no need to ask!)
Zarathustra intervenes.
4. The Great Creator (is himself) most mindful of the uttered indications which have been fulfilled beforehand hitherto in the deeds of demon-gods and (good or evil) men, and of those which shall be fulfilled by them hereafter. He Ahura is the discerning arbiter; so shall it be to us as He shall will!
5. Therefore it is that we both, my soul and (the soul) of the mother Kine, (are) make our supplications for the two worlds to Ahura, and with hands stretched out in entreaty, when we pray to the Great Creator with questions in our doubt; (and He will answer).
Not for the righteous liver, not for the thrifty (tiller of the earth), shall there be destruction together with the wicked!
Ahura.
6. Upon this the Lord, the Great Creator, He who understands the mysterious grace by His insight, spoke thus: Not in this manner is a spiritual master found for us, nor a chieftain moved by Righteousness and appointed (in its spirit); therefore Thee have I named (as such a head) to the diligent tiller of the ground!
The Ameshôspends.
7. Mazda has created the inspired Word-of-reason which is a Mãthra of fatness (for the offering), the (Divine) Righteousness consenting with Him in his deed. Food he has prepared for the Kine and for the eaters, He the one bountiful with his (saving) doctrine; but whom hast Thou, endowed with the Good Mind, who may give forth those (doctrines) by word of mouth to mortals?
Ahura.
8. This man is found for me here who alone has hearkened to our enunciations, Zarathustra Spitama! Our mighty and completed acts of grace he desires to enounce for us, for (Me), the Great Creator and for Righteousness; wherefore I will give him the good abode (and authoritative place) of such an one as speaks!
Source: The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Afringan, Gahs, and Miscellaneous Fragments, translated by L. H. Mills (Delhi: Molital Banarsidass, 1965), Yasna XXIX, 6–11.
2. THE LANDS OF THE ANCIENT IRANIANS FROM THE AVESTA
In Vendidad, the section of the Avesta (the Zoroastrian holy book) that focuses primarily on pollution, purification, and healing, the great god Ahura Mazda speaks to the prophet Zarathustra about the 16 lands and countries he had created. These lands, which presumably constitute the ancient homeland of the Iranian people, extend from Punjab in the east to Raghae (Ray) in the west and from Sogdiana in the north to the Helmand in the south. The first region or land mentioned in the list of 16 is Airyanem Vaejah (Eranvej), “the Expanse of the Aryans/Iranians,” the legendary homeland of the Avestan people. On each occasion when Ahura Mazda creates a good country, the evil spirit (Angra Mainyu/Ahriman), who is nothing but death, countercreates, corrupting and defiling the creations of the good god through his demonic agents.
Ahura Mazda spoke unto Spitama Zarathustra, saying:
I have made every land dear (to its people), even though it had no charms whatever in it; had I not made every land (dear to its people), even though it had no charms whatever in it, then the whole living world would have invaded the Airyana Vaeja [Airyanam Vaejah or Eranvej, the Expanse or the Territory of Aryans/Iranian].
(5). The first of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Airyana Vaeja, by the Vanguhi Daitya [good river Daitya].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu [Ahriman, the evil spirit], who is all death, and he counter-created the serpent in the river and Winter, a work of the Daevas [Demons].
(9). There are ten winter months there, two summer months; and those are cold for the waters, cold for the earth, cold for the trees. Winter falls there, the worst of its plagues.
(13). The second of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the plain which the Sughdhas inhabit [Old Persian: Suguda; Sogdiana, land lying between the Oxus River (Amu Darya) to the south and Jaxartes River (Syr Darya) to the north with its heartland being the valleys of Zarafshan and the Kashka Darya].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the locust, which brings death unto cattle and plants.
6 (17). The third of the good lands and countries, which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the strong, holy Môuru [Margu; Marv or Merv in present-day southern Turkmenistan].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft sinf
ul lusts.
7 (21). The fourth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the beautiful Bakhdhi [Bactria; Balkh: the core territory of ancient Bactria corresponded with present-day northern Afghanistan] with high-lifted banners.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the ants and the ant-hills.
8 (25). The fifth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Nisâya [Nisa in present-day Turkmenistan, which served as the first capital of the Arsacid/Parthian dynasty] that lies between Mouru and Bâkhdhi.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-acted the sin of unbelief.
9 (29). The sixth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Harôyu [Old Persian: Haraiva; Areia or Aria; the basin of the Hari River; Herat in present-day northwestern Afghanistan] with its lake.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created tears and wailing.
10 (33). The seventh of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Vaêkereta [Kapul; Kabul in present-day Afghanistan], of the evil shadows.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft the Pairika Knãthaiti, who clave unto Keresâspa.
11 (37). The eighth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Urva of the rich pastures [Mêshan or Mesene, the region of lower Euphrates, corresponding with Kuwait and southern Iraq].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the sin of pride.
12 (41). The ninth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Khnenta which the Vehrkânas inhabit [Varkana; Hyrcania; present-day Gorgan in northern Iran on the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created a sin for which there is no atonement, the unnatural sin.
13 (45). The tenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the beautiful Harahvaiti.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created by his witchcraft a sin for which there is no atonement, the burying of the dead.
14 (49). The eleventh of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the bright, glorious Haêtumant [the basin of the Erymanthus; now Helmend].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the evil work of witchcraft.
16 (59). The twelfth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was Ragha [Ray south of modern Tehran in northern Iran] of the three races.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the sin of utter unbelief.
17 (63). The thirteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the strong, holy Kakhra.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created a sin for which there is no atonement, the cooking of corpses.
18 (67). The fourteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the four-cornered Varena, [Gilan, present-day Caspian provinces of northern Iran] for which was born Thraêtaona [Fereydun], who smote Azi Dahâka [Zahhak].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created abnormal issues in women and barbarian oppression.
19 (72). The fifteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Seven Rivers [the modern Panjab or the Five Rivers].
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created abnormal issues in women and excessive heat.
20 (76). The sixteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the land by the sources (?) of Rangha [Roman Mesopotamia, the basin of the upper Tigris], where people live who have no chiefs.
Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created Winter, a work of the Daêvas [Demons].
21 (81). There are still other lands and countries, beautiful and deep, longing and asking for the good, and bright.
Source: The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad; Fargard I, translated by James Darmesteter (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965), 4–10.
3. VENERATION OF NATURAL FORCES: HYMN TO THE RIVER GODDESS AREDVI SURA ANAHITA
Ancient Iranians venerated natural forces. They worshipped the sun, water, rain, etc., as the most essential elements of life on Earth. The goddess of waters, Anahita, “the wide-expanding, the health-giving,” “the life-increasing,” “the herd-increasing,” “the fold-increasing,” “the wealth-increasing,” and “the country-increasing” deity, was the creation of the great god Ahura Mazda and therefore worthy of sacrifice and worship (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 1). She made “the womb of all females pure for bringing forth,” made “all females bring forth in safety,” and put “milk into the breasts of all females in the right measure and the right quality” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Aban Yasht, 2). Streams, rivers, lakes, and seas were therefore venerated, and polluting them was considered to be a sinful act. The hymn to the river goddess Aredvi Sura Anahita reveals the deep respect and adoration of ancient Iranians for natural forces, particularly the waters.
(1) Aredvi Sura Anahita, increasing corn, just, increasing herds, just, increasing possessions, just. … (3) immense, far-famed, who is as great in her immensity as all these waters which flow forth upon the earth; who, mighty, flows forth from Mount Hukairya upon the sea Vourukasha—all the edges of the sea Vourukasha are turbulent, all the middle is turbulent, as Aredvi Sura Anahita pours forth upon them. … (5) The outflow of that one sea will pour forth over all the seven regions. She pours down her waters summer and winter alike. She purifies the waters, she purifies the seed of males, the womb of females, the milk of females. … (132) Through this sacrifice, through this prayer … descend again, O Aredvi Sura Anahita, from those stars to the Ahura-created earth, to the worshipping priest with cupped hands overflowing, for help to the libation bringer.
Source: Mary Boyce, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 33. Reprinted with permission.
4. HYMN TO THE SHINING SUN
Ancient Iranians venerated natural forces. They revered the sun and water as the most essential elements of life on Earth. They recognized that plants, animals, and human beings could not live without the heat and light of the sun and the sustenance provided by water. In the Iranian cosmology the sun god Mithra, “the lord of wide pastures,” who had “a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes,” had been created by the great god Ahura Mazda (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Mihr Yasht, 1). Mithra was also worshipped as the god of covenants and oaths. He was a great divinity “worthy of sacrifice” and “worthy of prayer” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Mihr Yasht, 4, 5). The excerpt below, taken from the hymn to the “Shining Sun,” Hvar Khshaeta, demonstrates the deep respect and adoration that ancient Iranians showed to natural forces, particularly the sun.
1. We worship the Shining Sun, life-giving, bountiful. … When the sun with his light brings warmth, when the sun as light brings warmth, the invisible gods stand there, a hundred and a thousand.
2. That glory … of his they gather up, that glory of his they bring down, that glory of his they distribute over the Ahura-created earth, to prosper the world of asha. … (2) When the Sun rises, the Ahura-created earth is purified, a running water is purified. … (30) And if the Sun were not to rise, then demons would destroy all that is in the seven regions. Not one of the invisible gods would find a place to abide or stay in this material world. (4) He who sacrifices to the Shining Sun, life-giving, bountiful, … in order to resist darkness, in order to resist demons born of darkness … he rejoices all the invisible and visible gods.
Source: Mary Boyce, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 31–32. Reprinted with permission.
5. EXCERPT FROM PLUTARCH’S “ISIS AND OSIRIS” DESCRIBING THE TEACHINGS OF ZARATHUSTRA
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In his essay “Isis and Osiris,” which is contained in his Moralia, the Greek author Plutarch (46–119 CE) wrote about the teachings of Zarathustra (Zoroaster), referring to the Iranian prophet as a sage who taught a form of dualism based on the struggle between a god of good and an evil god, calling the former Oromazes (Ohrmazd/Ahura Mazda) and the latter Areimanius (Ahriman/Angra Mainyu). Plutarch’s interpretation of the teachings of Zarathustra reflects the impact of Zurvanism, a Zoroastrian heresy that was articulated, cultivated, and fostered by some Iranian magi. According to Zurvanism, Ahura Mazda, the god who had created everything that was good, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), or the evil spirit, were the twin sons of a supreme god, the god of time, who was called Zurvan. The heresy was widespread during the Sasanian period among all strata of society, including the powerful members of the Persian nobility. The excerpt below from “Isis and Osiris” also provides valuable information about how Zarathustra and Zoroastrianism were perceived by Greek and Roman biographers.
46. The great majority and the wisest of men hold this opinion: they believe that there are two gods, rivals as it were, the one the Artificer of good and the other of evil. There are also those who call the better one a god and the other a daemon [demon], as for example, Zoroaster the sage, who, they record lived five thousand years before the time of the Trojan War. He called the one Oromazes [Ohrmazd/Ahura Mazda] and the other Areimanius [Angra Mainyu/Ahriman]; and he further declared that among all the things perceptible to the senses, Oromazes may best be compared to light, and Areimanius, conversely, to darkness and ignorance, and midway between the two is Mithras; for this reason the Persians give to Mithras the name of “Mediator.” Zoroaster has also taught that men should make votive offerings and thank-offerings to Oromazes, and averting and mourning offerings to Areimanius. They pound up in a mortar a certain plant called omomi, and at the same time invoking Hades and Darkness; then they mix it with the blood of a wolf that has been sacrificed, and carry it out and cast it into a place where the sun never shines. In fact, they believe that some of the plants belong to the good god and others to the evil daemon; so also of the animals they think that dogs, fowls, and hedge-hogs, for example, belong to the good god, but that water-rats belong to the evil one; therefore the man who was killed the most of these they hold to be fortune.
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