Lane Fox, Robin. “Literacy and Power in Early Christianity.” In A. Bowman and G. Woolf, eds., Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. Cambridge, 1994.
———. Pagans and Christians. London, 1986.
Lear, Jonathan. Aristotle: The Desire to Understand. Cambridge, 1988.
Le Boullec, Alain. “Hellenism and Christianity.” In J. Brunschwig and G. E. R. Lloyd, eds., Greek Thought: A Guide to Classical Knowledge. Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2000.
Liebeschuetz, J. W. Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom. Oxford, 1990.
———. Continuity and Change in Roman Religion. Oxford, 1979.
———. “The Significance of the Speech of Praetextatus.” In P. Athanassiadi and M. Frede, eds., Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford 1999.
Lieu, J., J. North, and T. Rajak, eds. The Jews Among Pagans and Christians in the Roman Empire. London and New York, 1992.
Lim, Richard. Public Disputation: Power and Social Order in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and London, 1995.
Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York, 1994.
Lloyd, G. E. R. Aristotelian Explorations. Cambridge, 1996.
———. “Demonstration in Galen.” In M. Frede and G. Striker, eds., Rationality in Greek Thought. Oxford, 1996.
———. Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle. London, 1974.
———. Greek Science After Aristotle. London, 1973.
———. Magic, Reason and Experience. Cambridge, 1979.
———. The Revolutions of Wisdom. Berkeley and London, 1957.
Long, A. A. “Hellenistic Philosophy.” In Richard Popkin, The Pimlico History of Western Philosophy. New York, 1998; London, 1999.
———, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge, 1999.
Longrigg, James. Greek Medicine: From the Heroic to the Hellenistic Age: A Source Book. London, 1998.
Louden, R. B., and P. Schollmeier, eds. The Greeks and Us: Essays in Honor of Arthur W. H. Adkins. Chicago and London, 1999.
Maas, Michael. Readings in Late Antiquity: A Sourcebook. London and New York, 2000.
MacCormack, Sabine. Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and London, 1981.
MacDonald, William, and John Pinto. Hadrian’s Villa and Its Legacy. New Haven and London, 1995.
MacGregor, Neil. Seeing Salvation: Images of Christ in Art. London, 2000.
MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianising the Roman Empire (A.D. 100–400). New Haven and London, 1984.
———. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries. New Haven and London, 1997.
Macquarrie, John. Jesus Christ in Modern Thought. London and Philadelphia, 1990.
Mahoney, John. The Making of Moral Theology: A Study of the Roman Catholic Tradition. Oxford, 1987.
Mango, C. “Antique Statuary and the Byzantine Beholder.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers, no. 17 (1963): 55–75.
———, ed. The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford, 2002.
Markus, Robert. “Aquinas and Aristotle.” Blackfriars, March 1961.
———. The End of Ancient Christianity. Cambridge, 1990.
———. Gregory the Great and His World. Cambridge, 1997.
Marshall, Louise. “Confraternity and Community.” In B. Wisch, ed., Confraternities and the Visual Arts in Renaissance Italy: Ritual, Spectacle, Image. Cambridge, 2000.
Matthews, Thomas. The Clash of Gods: A Reinterpretation of Early Christian Art. Rev. paperback ed. Princeton, 1999.
Mayes, E., ed. Galilee Through the Centuries: Confluence of Cultures. Winona Lake, Ind., 1999.
Mayhew, Henry. London Labour and the London Poor. London, 1861–62.
McClelland, J. S. A History of Western Political Thought. London and New York, 1996.
McGinn, Bernard, and John Meyendorff, eds. Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth Century. London, 1986.
McInerny, R. Saint Thomas Aquinas. Boston, 1977.
McLynn, N. Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital. Berkeley, 1994.
McManners, John, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford, 1990.
Meeks, Wayne. The First Urban Christians. New Haven and London, 1983.
Meier, Christian. Caesar. London, 1995.
Memory and Reconciliation: The Church and the Faults of the Past. Vatican City, 1999.
Merback, M. The Thief, the Cross and the Wheel: Pain and Punishment in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. London, 1999.
Millar, Fergus. The Roman Near East 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1993.
Mitchell, Margaret. The Heavenly Trumpet: John Chrysostom and the Art of Pauline Interpretation. Tubingen, 2000.
Mitchell, Stephen. Anatolia: Land, Men and Gods in Asia Minor. 2 vols. Oxford, 1993.
———. “The Cult of Theos Hypsistos.” In P. Athanassiadi and M. Frede, Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford, 1999.
Morris, Jan. Trieste and the Meaning of Nowhere. London, 2001.
Moores, J. D. Wrestling with Rationality in Paul. Cambridge, 1995.
Mortley, Raoul. From Word to Silence. Vol. 1: The Rise and Fall of Logos. Vol. 2: The Way of Negation, Christian and Greek. Bonn, 1986.
Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. 4th ed. Oxford, 1998.
———. Paul: A Critical Life. Oxford, 1996.
Murray, Oswyn. Early Greece. 2nd ed. London, 1993.
Murray, Oswyn, and Simon Price, eds. The Greek City from Homer to Alexander. Oxford 1990.
Newbould, R. F. “Personality Structure and Response to Adversity in Early Christian Hagiography.” Numen 31 (1984).
New Catholic Encyclopedia. Washington, D.C., 1967.
Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness. Cambridge, 1986.
———. “Platonic Love and Colorado Love: The Relevance of Ancient Greek Norms to Modern Sexual Controversies.” In R. B. Louden and P. Schollmeier, eds., The Greeks and Us: Essays in Honor of Arthur W. H. Adkins. Chicago and London, 1999.
———. The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics. Princeton, 1994.
Ober, Josiah. Political Dissent in Democratic Athens: Intellectual Critics of Popular Rule. Princeton and Chichester, Eng., 1998.
Osborne, Robin. Greece in the Making, 1200–479 B.C. London, 1996.
O’Shea, Stephen. The Perfect Heresy: Life and Death of the Cathars. London, 2000. Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Gospels. London 1980.
Parker, Robert. Athenian Religion: A History. Oxford, 1996.
Partridge, Loren. The Renaissance in Rome. London, 1996.
Pearson, B., ed. The Future of Early Christianity: Essays in Honor of Helmut Koester. Minneapolis, 1991.
Pelikan, Jaroslav. Christianity and Classical Culture. New Haven and London, 1993.
———. The Christian Tradition. Vol. 1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). Chicago and London, 1971.
Pickman, E. M. The Mind of Latin Christendom. New York, 1937.
Pohlsander, H. Constantine the Emperor. London, 1997.
Popkin, Richard, ed. The Pimlico History of Western Philosophy. New York, 1998; London, 1999.
Popper, Karl. The Open Society and Its Enemies. 1945; republ. London, 1995.
Porter, J. R. Jesus Christ: The Jesus of History, the Christ of Faith. London, 1999.
Porter, Roy. The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present. London, 1997.
Powell, J. G. F., ed. Cicero the Philosopher. Oxford, 1995.
Powell, Mark Allen. The Jesus Debate. Oxford, 1999.
Price, Simon. Religions of the Ancient Greeks. Cambridge, 1999.
———. Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor. Cambridge, 1984.
Ranke-Heinemann, Uta. Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven: Women, Sexuality and the Catholic Church. Trans. P. Heinegg. New York, 19
90.
Rawson, Elizabeth. Cicero: A Portrait. London, 1995.
Reinhold, M., and N. Lewis. Roman Civilization, Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1995.
Richards, Hubert. St Paul and His Epistles: A New Introduction. London, 1979. Rihill, T. E. Greek Science. Oxford, 1999.
Rist, John. Augustine: Ancient Thought Baptised. Cambridge, 1994.
———. “Plotinus and Christian Philosophy.” In Lloyd P. Gerson, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Plotinus. Cambridge, 1996.
Rives, J. Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage from Augustus to Constantine. Oxford, 1995.
Robb, Kevin, ed. Language and Thought in Early Greek Philosophy. La Salle, Ill., 1983.
Rogerson, John, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Bible. Oxford, 2001.
Rorem, Paul. “The Uplifting Spirituality of Pseudo-Dionysius.” In Bernard McGinn and John Meyendorff, eds., Christian Spirituality: Origins to the Twelfth Century. London, 1986.
Rousseau, Philip. Ascetics, Authority and the Church in the Age of Jerome and Cassian. Oxford, 1978.
Ruether, Rosemary. Faith and Fratricide: The Theological Roots of Anti-Semitism. New York, 1974.
———. Gregory of Nazianzus: Rhetor and Philosopher. Oxford, 1969.
Runciman, W. G. “Doomed to Extinction: The Polis as an Evolutionary Dead-End.” In Oswyn Murray and Simon Price, eds., The Greek City from Homer to Alexander. Oxford, 1990.
Sanders, E. P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. Harmondsworth, 1993.
———. Paul. Oxford, 1991.
Segal, Alan. “Universalism in Judaism and Christianity.” In Troels Engbury-Pedersen, ed., Paul in His Hellenistic Context. Edinburgh, 1994.
Shipley, Graham. The Greek World After Alexander, 323–30 B.C. London, 2000.
Shotter, David. The Fall of the Roman Republic. London and New York, 1994.
Sim, David C. The Gospel of Matthew and Christian Judaism. Edinburgh, 1998.
Simmons, M. B. “Julian the Apostate.” In P. Esler, ed., The Early Christian World, vol. 2. New York and London, 2000.
Simon, Marcus. Verus Israel. Oxford, 1986.
Simonetti, M. Profilo storico dell’esegesi patristica. Rome, 1980.
Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. 2nd ed. London, 1990.
Siorvanes, Lucas. Proclus: Neo-Platonic Philosophy and Science. Edinburgh, 1996. Smith, R. R. R. Hellenistic Sculpture. London, 1991.
Smith, Rowland. Julian’s Gods: Religion and Philosophy in the Thought and Action of Julian the Apostate. London and New York, 1995.
Sorabji, Richard. Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation. Oxford, 2000.
———. “Rationality.” In Michael Frede and Gisela Striker, eds., Rationality in Greek Thought. Oxford, 1996.
Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity. Princeton, 1996.
Stead, Christopher. Philosophy in Christian Antiquity. Cambridge, 1994.
———. “Rhetorical Method in Athanasius.” Vigiliae Christianae 30 (1976): 121–37.
Stegemann, E. W., and W. Stegemann. The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century. Edinburgh, 1999.
Steiner, Deborah. The Tyrant’s Writ. Princeton, 1993.
Straw, Carole. Gregory the Great: Perfection in Imperfection. Berkeley and London, 1988.
Stroumsa, Guy. Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Christianity. Tubingen, 1999.
Swain, S. Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World, A.D. 50–250. Oxford, 1996.
Tallis, Raymond. Enemies of Hope: A Critique of Contemporary Pessimism. London, 1997.
Tarn, William. Alexander. Cambridge, 1948.
Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind. London, 1996.
Tarrant, Harold. “Middle Platonism.” In Richard Popkin, ed., The Pimlico History of Western Philosophy. New York, 1998; London, 1999.
Taylor, Miriam. Anti-Judaism and Early Christian Identity. Leiden and New York, 1995.
Thomas, Keith. Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500–1800. London, 1983.
Thomas, Rosalind. Herodotus in Context: Ethnography, Science and the Art of Persuasion. Cambridge, 2000.
Thompson, E. A. The Visigoths in the Time of Ulfila. Oxford, 1966.
Tilley, Maureen. “Dilatory Donatists or Procrastinating Catholics: The Trial at the Conference of Carthage.” In Everett Ferguson, ed., Doctrinal Diversity: Varieties of Early Christianity. New York and London, 1999.
Trout, Dennis. Paulinus of Nola: Life, Letters and Poems. Berkeley and London, 1999.
Vaggione, Richard. Eunomius of Cyzicus and the Nicene Revolution. Oxford, 2000. Vermes, G. The Changing Faces of Jesus. London, 2000.
Wallace, R., and W. Williams. The Three Worlds of Paul of Tarsus. London, 1998. Wardy, Robert. The Birth of Rhetoric. London, 1996.
———. “Rhetoric.” In J. Brunschwig and G. E. R. Lloyd, eds., Greek Thought: A Guide to Classical Knowledge. Cambridge, Mass., and London, 2000.
Ware, Kallistos. “The Soul in Greek Christianity.” In C. Crabbe and M. James, eds., From Soul to Self. London, and New York, 1999.
———. “The Way of the Ascetics, Negative or Affirmative?” In V. Wimbush and R. Valantasis, eds., Asceticism. New York and Oxford, 1995.
Warner, Marina. Alone of All Her Sex. London, 1985.
Weitzmann, K., ed. Age of Spirituality: A Symposium. New York, 1980.
West, Martin. “Early Greek Philosophy.” In John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray, eds., The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford, 1986.
Wiles, Maurice. Archetypal Heresy: Arianism Through the Centuries. Oxford, 1996.
Wilken, R. L. John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and Reality in the Late Fourth Century. Berkeley and London, 1983.
Williams, Bernard. “Philosophy.” In M. J. Finley, ed., The Legacy of Greece: A New Appraisal. Oxford, 1984.
Williams, Daniel. Ambrose of Milan and the End of Nicene–Arian Conflicts. Oxford, 1995.
Williams, Rowan. “Arianism.” In E. Ferguson, ed., Encyclopaedia of Early Christianity. Chicago and London, 1990.
———, ed. The Making of Orthodoxy: Essays in Honour of Henry Chadwick. Cambridge, 1989.
Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. London, 1985.
Wills, Gary. Saint Augustine. London and New York, 1999.
Wimbush, V., and R. Valantasis, eds. Asceticism. New York and Oxford, 1995.
Wisch, B., ed. Confraternities and the Visual Arts in Renaissance Italy: Ritual, Spectacle, Image. Cambridge, 2000.
Witt, R. Isis in the Greco-Roman World. London, 1971.
Wolterstorff, Nicholas. “Faith.” In Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London and New York, 2000.
Worthington, Ian, ed. Persuasion: Greek Rhetoric in Action. London and New York, 1994.
Wood, D., ed. The Church and the Arts. Oxford, 1992.
Young, Frances. “A Cloud of Witnesses.” In John Hick, ed., The Myth of God Incarnate, 2nd ed. London, 1993.
———. From Nicaea to Chalcedon. London, 1993.
Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. Ann Arbor, 1988.
1, 2. Two details from “The Triumph of Faith” by Filippino Lippi, painted in the 1480S for the Dominican church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome. The great Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas upholds the true faith, while below him the works of heretics lie discarded. The figures below Aquinas include the fourth-century combatants in the dispute, among them Arius and Sabellius, as well as contemporaries of the donor of the fresco, Cardinal Oliviero Carafa (1430–1511), the cardinal protector of the Dominicans.
Note Constantine’s church of St. John Lateran in the view to the left of Aquinas (top) with the famous equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, then believed to be of Constantine, which is now on the Capitoline Hill. For further discussion of the fresco, see chapter 1. (Credit: Scala)
3, 4. “There is one race of men, one race of gods, both have bre
ath of life from a single mother . . . so we have some likeness, in great intelligence and strength to the immortals.” The poet Pindar, writing in the fifth century B.C., notes the contrasts and similarities between men and the gods in the Greek world. The Riace warrior (above), which forms part of an Athenian victory monument at Delphi (470s B.C.), represents man at his most heroic, almost a god in his own right, as the similarity to a portrayal of Zeus in a bronze of the same date (right) makes clear. This was the human world at its most confident, although the Greeks always warned of the impropriety of a mortal attempting to behave as if he were a god. (Credit: Ancient Art and Architecture Collection)
5, 6. By the fourth century A.D., such confidence has faded and human beings have become overwhelmed by forces over which they have little control. The gulf between God and man is now immense. On earth, the ascetic Anthony, here shown on the Isenheim Altar (above), painted for a monastery dedicated to St. Anthony in Alsace by Matthias Grünewald (1515), fights off a host of demons which threaten to overcome him (credit: Bridgeman Art Library). In the afterlife (left), devils drag unlucky souls down into hell from the ladder on which they are making the arduous ascent towards heaven (a twelfth-century icon from St. Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai; credit: Ancient Art and Architecture Collection). It was perhaps inevitable in such a climate that creative thinking about the natural world would be stifled.
7. Marcus Aurelius (emperor A.D. 161–80) displays himself as one among his fellow humans. Here, in a contemporary panel (C. 176–80 A.D.) in Rome, he grants clemency to two kneeling barbarians (credit: Corbis). In his Meditations, much influenced by Stoicism, Marcus Aurelius stresses his optimism about the natural order of things. “Everything bears fruit: man, God, the whole universe, each in its proper season. Reason, too, yields fruit, both for itself and for the world; since from it comes a harvest of other good things, themselves all bearing the stamp of reason.”
8, 9, 10. By the fourth century the emperor has become quasi-divine, as the monumental idealized head of Constantine (above left), from his basilica in Rome, suggests (credit: Scala). Recent studies of Constantine doubt that he was ever fully converted to Christianity, but aimed instead to bring Christianity, alongside paganism, into the service of the state. His Arch in Rome (315) (top) shows no Christian influence, but one can see in the third line of the inscription the words INSTINCTU DIVINITAS, “by divine inspiration,” a use of terminology acceptable to both Christian and pagan (credit: Scala). In a coin of about 330 (above right), Constantine stands between two of his sons (credit: Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). He receives a circlet directly from God, a symbol of divine approval of his rule, while Constantius is crowned by Virtus (virtue) and Constantine II by Victoria (victory). In Christian terms, Constantine sees himself as the “thirteenth apostle” and is buried as such.
The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason Page 58