52 Thapar, Early India, 90.
53 Shatapatha Brahmama 3.1.2.21.
54 Thapar, Early India, 115.
55 See the introduction, by Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith, to The Laws of Manu. See also the conflict between sacrifice and nonviolence in Doniger O’Flaherty, Other Peoples’ Myths, chapter 4.
56 Atharva Veda 11.2.9 and 3.10.6, with Sayana’s commentary.
57 Doniger O’Flaherty, Other Peoples’ Myths, chapter 4.
58 Shatapatha Brahmana 13.6.1-2; Vajasaneyi Samhita 30.1-22; Taittiriya Brahmana 3.4.1.1 ff.
59 Sharma, The Excavations at Kausambi, 87ff.; Schlinghoff, “Menschenopfer in Kausambi.”
60 Sauve, “The Divine Victim”; Willibald Kirfel, “Der Asvamedha und der Purusamedha.”
61 Flood, Introduction, 41; Heesterman, The Broken World, 10.
62 Lincoln, Myth, Cosmos, and Society, 183 n.
63 For men as the sacrificial beasts of the gods, see Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 169-73.
64 Shatapatha Brahmana 11.7.1.3; Taittiriya Brahmana 3.9.17.4-5.
65 See the discussion of human sacrifice in Parpola, “The Pre-Vedic Indian Background,” 49-53; Weber, “Purusamedakandha” and “Ueber Menschenopfer”; Wilson, “On the Sacrifice of Human Beings”; Mitra, “On Human Sacrifices.”
66 Shatapatha Brahmana 1.2.3.6-7; Aitareya Brahmana 2.8; Levi, La doctrine, 136-37.
67 Eggeling, Shatapatha Brahmana, I, 49.
68 Aitareya Brahmana 7.13-18; Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources, 20-25.
69 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10; Shatapatha Brahmana 14.4.2.21-22; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 91.
70 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 171-73.
71 Shatapatha Brahmana 13.2.8.1-4.
72 Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources 14-19.
73 Taittiriya Samhita 7.4.19; Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, 154-61; Textual Sources, 15-19.
74 Shatapatha Brahmana 1.9.9.
75 Grottanelli, “Yoked Horses.”
76 Doniger O’Flaherty, The Rig Veda, 257-263; Jamison, Sacrificed Wife, 77-88, further developed this connection between the horse sacrifice and RV 10.86, and showed that the monkey is a mock horse and the poem a mock horse sacrifice.
77 Shatapatha Brahmana 13.2.9.6-9; Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources, 17-18.
78 Jaiminiya Brahmana 3.199-200; Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Violence, 75-76.
79 Doniger, Splitting the Difference.
80 Doniger O’Flaherty, The Rig Veda, 253-56.
81 Shatapatha Brahmana 11.5.1.1-17; Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, 180-81.
82 Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, 180-81.
83 Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources, 12-13.
84 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 216-19.
85 Shatapatha Brahmana 10.2.6.190.
86 Ibid, 11.1.6.6; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 217; Textual Sources, 29-30.
87 Shatapatha Brahmana 10.4.4.1-3. Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 217.
88 Shatapatha Brahmana 11.1.6.6; Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 217.
89 Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma.
90 Shatapatha Brahmana 10.4.4.1-3; Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 217.
91 Tull, The Vedic Origins of Karma.
92 Taittiriya Brahmana 3.11.8.1-6.
93 Katha Upanishad 1-2, 6.18.
94 Tale Type 369, 465C, 466, 812.
95 Thompson, Motif Index A 1715.
96 Jamison, Ravenous Hyenas.
97 Julius Eggeling, cited in Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Violence, 4-5.
98 Aitareya Brahmana, Maitrayani Samhita, Kathaka Samhita; Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Violence, 12.
99 Doniger O’Flaherty, “The Post-Vedic History.”
100 Wasson, Soma.
101 Jaiminiya Brahmana 2.369-70; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 140.
102 Shatapatha Brahmana 5.5.4.10; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 153.
103 Taittiriya Samhita 2.5.1.
104 Tale Type 3.2.8.9-12; Taittiriya Samhita 4.1.9; Atharva Veda 6.113.
105 Shatapatha Brahmana 1.2.3.2-4.
106 Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.97-98; Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Violence, 51-52. Cf. Chandogya Upanishad 1.2.1-6.
107 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil.
CHAPTER 7. RENUNCIATION IN THE UPANISHADS 1 Chandogya Upanishad 4.4; Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Studies, 31-32.
2 Keay, India, 52.
3 Ibid., 63.
4 Thapar, Early India, 138.
5 Ibid., 148.
6 Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 51-58.
7 Derrett, Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature, 4-5, 11-12
8 This page, and indeed much of my discussion of the history of India during this period, owes much to conversations with Laura Desmond.
9 Gombrich, “Dating the Buddha.”
10 Joel Brereton and Patrick Olivelle have argued, fairly convincingly, that it should rather be translated, “And that’s how you are.” Olivelle, Early Upanishads.
11 Manu 3.100; cf. 4.201: The same karmic transfers results from bathing in another man’s tank without his permission.
12 Doniger O’Flaherty, introductions to Karma and Rebirth and to 2nd ed. Origins of Evil.
13 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 248-71.
14 Keay, India, 49.
15 Fairservis, Roots; Zimmerman, The Jungle.
16 Roth, I Married a Communist, 72.
17 Flood, Introduction, 83.
18 Doniger O’Flaherty, Karma, 4.
19 Thapar, Early India, 130.
20 Ibid., 132.
21 Heesterman, The Broken World.
22 Doniger O’Flaherty, Karma, introduction.
23 Thapar, Early India, 132
24 Olivelle, Samnyasa Upanishads, 116, 123,132-33, 137-39, 152, 157-61.
25 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 149-58.
26 Flood, Introduction, 87-88, citing Heesterman.
27 Ibid., 53.
28 Thapar, Early India, 132.
29 Maitrayani Samhita 4.8.1; Kathaka Samhita 30.1
30 Flood, Introduction, 87.
31 Obeyesekere, Imagining Karma.
32 Thapar, Early India, 128.
33 Garbe, “Lokayata.”
34 Olivelle, The Ashrama System, 9-16.
35 Flood, Introduction, 81-82; Doniger O’Flaherty, “The Origins of Heresy.”
36 Patanjali, cited by Flood, Introduction, 82; cf. Thapar, Early India, 63.
37 Flood, Introduction, 148.
38 Thapar, Early India, 131.
39 Klostermaier, Hinduism, 34; cf. Flood, Introduction, 86.
40 Insler, “The Shattered Head.”
41 Skanda Purana 1.2.13.62.
42 Thapar, Early India, 262.
43 In the Pali canon, the story is preserved in Anguttara Nikaya 8.51 and in the Cullavagga section of the Vinaya.
44 My insights into early sutras in general, and this paragraph in particular, come from Laura Desmond.
45 Ramayana 5.20.3.
46 Olivelle, Early Upanishads, 356.
47 West, Indo-European Poetry, 22.
48 Biardeau, Hinduism, 31.
49 Aitareya Brahmana 2.8-9.
50 Heesterman, The Inner Conflict.
51 Aitareya Brahmana 7.13-18.
52 Madan, Non-renuncation.
53 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 44-68.
54 Ernst, “Situating Sufism and Yoga.”
55 Narayan, Storytellers, Saints and Scoundrels.
56 Jamison, Sacrificed Wife, 16-17.
57 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva.
CHAPTER 8. THE THREE (OR IS IT FOUR?) AIMS OF LIFE IN THE HINDU IMAGINARY 1 Ashvaghosha, Buddhacarita, 2.14.
2 V. Shekhawat, “Origin and Structure of Purush-artha Theory.”
3 Larson and Bhattacharya, eds., Samkhya; Larson, “India Through Hindu Categories.”
4 . Larson, Classi
cal Samkhya.
5 . Larson and Bhattacharya, eds., Samkhya.
6 Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, 408-11.
7 Cf. religion as the model of and the model for, in Geertz, “Religion as a Cultural System.”
8 Olivelle, Dharmasutras, xxxiii-iv.
9 Cf. M 8.52-57 and AS 3.1.19; M 7.102 and AS 1.4.5; M 7.105 and AS 1.15.60; M 9.280 and AS 4.11.7
10 Olivelle, “Manu and the Arthasastra” and Olivelle, Introduction to Manu, xx.
11 Divyavadana, Ashokavadana, and others.
12 Wilhelm, “The Concept of Dharma in Artha and Kama Literature.”
13 Brian K. Smith, Classifying the Universe.
14 Harsha, Priyadarshika, act 2.
15 Mandukya Upanishad 3-7.
16 Erdman, “The Empty Beat.”
17 Organ, “Three into Four.”
18 Olivelle, The Ashrama System.
19 Organ, “Three into Four.”
20 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva.
21 Doniger, “Three (or More) Forms.”
22 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 76-77.
23 Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus.
24 Heesterman, The Inner Conflict of Society.
25 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva.
26 Mahabharata 1.187 (three variants of this verse occur at 1.App. I.1.35-36, 1.App. I.5.18-19, and 18.App. I.3.31-32).
27 Krishna, Indian Philosophy, chapters 4, to 11.
28 Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 94-97 and 128-31.
CHAPTER 9. WOMEN AND OGRESSES IN THE RAMAYANA 1 Chakravarti, Themes in Indian History, 53.
2 Ibid., 68.
3 Michell, Hindu Art and Architecture, 40.
4 Thapar, Early India, 148.
5 Heesterman, The Ancient Indian Royal Consecration.
6 Thapar, Early India, 143.
7 Mitter, Indian Art, 13.
8 Bosworth, “Calanus and the Brahman Opposition.”
9 Mitter, Indian Art, 24.
10 Keay, India, 78.
11 Ibid., 70.
12 Thapar, Early India, 194.
13 Ibid., 200.
14 Mathur, Art and Culture, 1-3.
15 Flood, Introduction, 51.
16 Bana, Harshahcarita.
17 Mann, The Sources of Social Power, 359.
18 Keay, India, 103.
19 Thapar, Early India, 210-12. The inscription is at the Elephant’s Cave (Hathigumpha).
20 Hiltebeiteil, Rethinking.
21 Ruben, Ueber die Frage der Objectivität, 114, cited by Hiltebeitel, Rethinking, 177.
22 Pollock, Ramayana, vl. 2, 32-33, but cf. Stein, A History of India, 51.
23 West, Indo-European Poetry, 469.
24 Ibid., 63; Shatapatha Brahmana 13.1.5.6.
25 Lord, The Singer of Tales.
26 Chakravarti, Themes in Indian History, 74.
27 Dalrymple, “Homer in India: Rajasthan’s Oral Epics,” 54.
28 Flood, Introduction, 105.
29 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 66.
30 Pollock “Atmanam Manusam Manye,” 234-35, citing Tryambaka.
31 Ibid., 242, citing Govindaraja.
32 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 92; Hindu Myths, 198-204.
33 R, after 7.88, appendix I, no. 13, 21-25; cf. Doniger, Splitting the Difference, 9-27.
34 Doniger, Splitting the Difference.
35 Grottannelli, “The King’s Grace and the Helpless Woman.”
36 Grottanelli, “Yoked Horses, Twins, and the Powerful Lady”; Cornelia Dimmitt, “Sita: Fertility Goddess and Shakti.”
37 R 1.65.11-14, using the alternative lines rejected by the critical edition, including five lines omitted after verse 13ab; Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources, 58-59.
38 R, between 6.9 and 6.10, appendix I, no. 3, verses 278-80.
39 Doniger, Splitting the Difference, 88-110.
40 Shulman. “Sita and Satakantharavana.”
41 Ibid.
42 Masson, “Fratricide and the Monkeys.”
43 Lutgendorf, Hanuman’s Tale.
44 The term “side shadows” was coined by Gary Saul Morson (after Bakhtin), in Narrative and Freedom.
45 Jones, On the Nightmare. Freud (in The Interpretation of Dreams) also wrote about this.
46 Doniger, The Bedtrick, 118-22.
47 Ramayana passage rejected by critical edition at 2.32, appendix 1, 14, 36-54. Cf. Jataka #386 (the Kharaputta Jataka) about a cobra woman and talking animals.
48 Masson, “Who Killed Cock Kraunca?”
49 Ramayana 7, appendix 1, no. 8, lines 332-465.
50 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 102.
51 Pollock, Ramayana, vol. 3, 69-70, citing Talboys-Wheeler, The History of India from the Earliest Ages (1869).
52 Goldman, Ramayana, vol. 1, 26, citing Gorresio.
53 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 39, 103.
54 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva.
55 Pollock, Ramayana, vol. 2, 403-04, 470, notes.
CHAPTER 10. VIOLENCE IN THE MAHABHARATA 1 13th Major Rock Edict, trans, Thapar, Ashoka, 255-56; Nikam and McKeon, Edicts, 27-29; Sircar, Inscriptions of Asoka, 50-52.
2 Second separate rock edict; Thapar, Ashoka, 258; Nikam, Edicts, 53; Sircar, Inscriptions, 41-42.
3 2nd Pillar Edict; Thapar, Ashoka, 262; Nikam, Edicts, 41; Sircar, Inscriptions, 62-63.
4 Irwin, “Ashokan Pillars.”
5 Mitter, Indian Art, 14-15.
6 Kandahar bilingual rock inscription; Thapar, Ashoka, 261.
7 4th Major Rock Edict, trans. Thapar, Ashoka, 251; Nikam McKeon, Edicts, 31; Sircar, Inscriptions, 42-43.
8 11th Major Rock Edict, Sircar, Inscriptions, 48.
9 1st Major Rock Edict, trans. Thapar, Ashoka, 250. Nikam and McKeon add “daily,” to the last line, 55; Sircar, 41, does not.
10 Thapar, Ashoka, 203, “his personal preference.”
11 5th Pillar Edict. Nikam and Mckeon, Edicts, 56; Sircar, Inscriptions, 64-65.
12 9th Major Rock Edict, Nikam and McKeon, Edicts, 46; Sircar, Inscriptions, 46-47.
13 Thapar, Ashoka, 202.
14 12th Major Rock Edict, Thapar, Ashoka, 255; Nikam and McKeon, Edicts, 51-52; Sircar, Inscriptions, 49.
15 9th Major Rock Edict, trans. Thapar, Ashoka, 254; Nikam and McKeon, Edicts, 46; Sircar, Inscriptions, 46-47.
16 Fourth Major Rock Edict, trans. Thapar, Ashoka, 251; Nikam and McKeon, Edicts, 31; Sircar, Inscriptions, 42-43.
17 Thapar, Ashoka, 203.
18 Keay, India, 104.
19 Ibid., 91.
20 Thapar, Early India, 275.
21 Mann, The Sources of Social Power, 359.
22 Thapar, Early India, 228.
23 Flood, Introduction, 103.
24 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 104.
25 Michell, Art and Architecture, 40-43.
26 Mahabharata 7.173, 10.18.1-23, 12.343, 13.76.
27 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 278.
28 Flood, Introduction, 218-19.
29 Keay, India, 108.
30 Flood, Introduction, 119
31 Thapar, Early India, 139; Chakravarti, Themes in Indian History, 74B.
32 Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Danger.
33 Kulke and Rothermund, A History of India, 45.
34 Gonzalez-Riemann, The Mahabharata and the Yugas.
35 Scharf, Ramopakhayana.
36 Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence.
37 The Raghavapandaviya of Dhananjaya.
38 Hiltebeitel, The Ritual of Battle, 14-15.
39 Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes, 75-76.
40 Also Mahabharata 1.56.34; cf. 18.5.38: “Whatever is here about dharma, profit, pleasure, and Release . . .”
41 Hermann Oldenberg, as quoted in Sukthankar, On the Meaning of the Mahabharata, 1; Hopkins, Great Epic of India, 58; John D. Smith, “Old Indian (The Two Sanskrit Epics),” 50.
42 Reich, A Battlefield of a Text; “Sacrificial Violence and Textual
Battles.”
43 Collins, “Violence, Power and Sacrifice in the Indian Context.”
44 Fitzgerald, The Mahabharata, v. 7, 123.
45 Doniger O’Flaherty, “Horses and Snakes.”
46 Van Buitenen, The Mahabharata, book 1, 4.
47 Hiltebeitel, Rethinking the Mahabharata, 171.
48 Ibid., 200-02.
49 I owe this realization to Lorraine Daston, Berlin, 2002.
50 Houben et al. and Tull, “The Killing That Is Not Killing.”
51 Tilak, Srimad BhagavadGita-Rahasya, 44.
52 Biardeau, Hinduism, 31.
53 Hiltebeitel, Rethinking the Mahabharatas, 202-14.
54 Fitzgerald, The Mahabharata, 112.
55 Strong, Ashokvadana.
56 Selvanayagam, “Asoka and Arjuna.”
57 Fitzgerald, The Mahabharata, 122.
58 Also in passages rejected, and not even printed as appendices, in the critical edition. See Ulrich, Divided Bodies.
59 Jataka 499 and Jatakamala #2.
60 Collins, “Violence, Power and Sacrifice in the Indian Context.”
61 RV 1.117.22; Shatapatha Brahmana 14.1.1.18-24; Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 56-60.
62 Allen, “Why Did Odysseus Become a Horse?,” 148.
CHAPTER 11. DHARMA IN THE MAHABHARATHA 1 Apastamba Dharma Sutra 1.7.20.6.
2 Apastamba and Gautama were probably third century BCE, Baudhayana second century BCE, and Vasistha first century CE; Olivelle, Dharmasutras, xxxiii.
3 Selvanayagam, “Ashoka and Arjuna.”
4 Flood, Introduction, 148.
5 Thapar, Early India, 278.
6 Chakravarti, The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism; Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism.
7 Thapar, Early India, 279
8 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 27.
9 Thapar, Early India, 124.
10 Thapar, From Lineage to State, 170.
11 Thapar, Early India, 125.
12 Ibid., 124.
13 Ghurye, The Scheduled Tribes; Srinivas, Social Change in Modern India.
14 Thapar, Early India, 126.
15 Keay, India, 189.
16 Turner, The Forest of Symbols; Brian Smith, Classifying the Universe.
17 Brodbeck, “Ekalavya and Mahabharata 1.121-128.”
18 Hemavijayagani, Katharatnakara 185.20,” story no. 163, “The Story of the Bhilla,” pp. 185-86.
19 Doniger, Bedtrick, 248-54.
20 Doniger and Spinner, “Misconceptions.”
21 Doniger, Splitting the Difference.
22 Naishadiyacarita 17.132.
23 For Yavakri in the Jaiminiya Brahmana and Mahabharata , see Doniger O’Flaherty, Tales of Sex and Violence.
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