19 Carman, Theology of Ramanuja, 43, n. 37.
20 Davis, Lives of Indian Images, 133.
21 Carman, Theology of Ramanuja, 44, n. 38, 39.
22 Ibid., 45.
23 Narayana Panditacarya, Madhva-vijaya 10.8- 10.18, 10.27-10.32
24 Encyclopaedia Britannica on Madhva.
25 Varaha Purana 71.48-62.
26 Madhva, Brahma-sutra-bhashya 1.1.1, citing Varaha Purana 1.228; cf. Klostermaier, Hinduism, 59-60.
27 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 70-72.
28 Narayana Panditacarya, Manimanjari 5-8.
29 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 210.
30 Flood, Introduction, 166.
31 Ibid., 164.
32 Ibid., 170.
33 Ibid.,162.
34 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 168-73.
35 Lubin, “Veda on Parade,” 398.
36 Agni Purana 27.17-28.
37 Beck, “Krishna as Loving Husband of God,” 70.
38 Flood, Introduction, 137.
39 Appadurai, “Kings, Sects and Temples.”
40 Prashna Upanishad 4.5.
41 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, Illusion.
42 Cox, “Saffron in the Rasam.”
43 Flood, Introduction, 166.
44 Schimmel, The Empire, 137.
45 Ibid. 328 and 114; a copy of the gorgeously illustrated translation is one of the treasures of the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin.
46 Personal communication from Muzaffar Alam, Chicago, December 2007.
47 Yoga-vasishtha 1.10-11; Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 131, 139-40.
48 Yoga-vasishtha 6.1.85-08; Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 280-81.
49 Yoga-vasishtha 3.104-09, 120-21; Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 134-35.
50 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 140-45.
51 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.1.18.
52 Markandeya Purana 8.128.
53 Gombrich and Cone, The Perfect Generosity, xxv-xxvi; Jataka 547.
54 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams.
55 Yoga-vasishtha 5.44-49; Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams 135-36.
CHAPTER 19. DIALOGUE AND TOLERANCE UNDER THE MUGHALS 1 Cited by Schimmel, The Empire, 113.
2 Ibid., 94-95.
3 Keay, India, 322.
4 Ibid., 274, 289.
5 Schimmel, The Empire, 24.
6 Babur, Baburnama, 353.
7 Ibid., 52, 442, 415, 342.
8 Keay, India, 295,
9 Babur, Baburnama, 394.
10 Mukhia, The Mughals, 18.
11 Schimmel, The Empire, 30-31.
12 Keay, India, 309.
13 Gascoyne, The Great Moguls, 57.
14 Schimmel, The Empire, 31.
15 Keay, India, 315.
16 Schimmel, The Empire, 33.
17 Keay, India, 316-17.
18 Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian, 288, citing Abu’l Fazl.
19 Keay, India, 312, citing Abu’l Fazl, Akbar Nama, 2, 271-72.
20 Schimmel, The Empire, 131.
21 Ibid., 113, citing Akbar.
22 Khan, “Akbar’s Personality Traits,” 22.
23 Ibid., 36.
24 Amartya Sen, Foreword to K. M. Sen, Hinduism, x-xi.
25 Schimmel, The Empire, 36, 94, 120-21.
26 Keay, India, 317
27 Ibid.
28 Schimmel, The Empire, 38.
29 Keay, India, 318.
30 Ibid., 312-13.
31 Schimmel, The Empire, 111.
32 Wujastyk, “Change and Creativity,” 107, 109-10.
33 Mukhia, The Mughals, 23.
34 Ibid., 30.
35 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 3, 181.
36 Schimmel, The Empire, 111.
37 Dalrymple, “The Most Magnificent Muslims,” 26.
38 Keay, India, 327.
39 Findly, “Jahangir’s Vow,” 249.
40 Schimmel, The Empire, 95-96, 109, 148, 328.
41 Mukhia, The Mughals, 19, 23-24.
42 Schimmel, The Empire, 114.
43 Mukhia, The Mughals, 24.
44 Mitter, Indian Art, 87.
45 Richards, The Mughal Empire, 152.
46 Schimmel, The Empire, 116.
47 Ibid., 50.
48 Gascoigne, The Great Moghuls, 227.
49 Dalrymple, White Moghuls, 110.
50 Keay, India, 344-45
51 Ibid., 343.
52 Ibid., 342-43, 349, 356.
53 Mukhia, The Mughals, 25.
54 Keay, India, 342.
55 Mukhia, The Mughals, 24.
56 Ibid., 26.
57 Keay, India, 336, 343.
58 Schimmel, The Empire, 52.
59 Keay, India, 342
60 Schimmel, The Empire, 139.
61 Eaton, Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, 305.
62 Keay, India, 364
63 Schimmel, The Empire, 196.
64 Ibid., 103, 196.
65 Babur, Baburnama, 298.
66 Ibid., 276.
67 Schimmel, The Empire, 277.
68 Babur, Baburnama, 300.
69 Ibid., 301.
70 Keay, India, 295.
71 Babur, Baburnama, 380-82.
72 Schimmel, The Empire, 196; cf. Babur-nama, 436.
73 Babur, Baburnama, 413, 439.
74 Forster, “The Emperor Babur.”
75 Schimmel, The Empire, 30, 40, 146, 196.
76 Ibid., 41, 45, 96, 198.
77 Findly, “Jahangir’s Vow,” 247.
78 Schimmel, The Empire, 195.
79 Ibid., 12, 128, 137.
80 Babur, Baburnama, 372-74.
81 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari. vol. 1, 301, 203-4.
82 Karen Rosenberg, “An Emperor’s Art: Small, Refined, Jewel Toned,” reviewing an exhibition at the Sackler Gallery. New York Times, Friday, July 18, 2008.
83 Mukhia, The Mughals, 14, citing Thomas Coryat, English Traveler to India, 1612-17.
84 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, 292-300.
85 Findly, “Jahangir’s Vow,” 250, citing Humayun’s memoirs.
86 Schimmel, The Empire, 10, 36, citing Akbar-nama 3 and Bayazid Bayat, Tarikh-i-Humayunwa-Akbar, 74.
87 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 3 446, 164.
88 Ibid., 202.
89 Findly, “Jahangir’s Vow,” 247-48.
90 Ibid., 247, 250, 253.
91 Mukhia, The Mughals, 26-27.
92 Keay, India, 331, 351.
93 Ibid., 338, 350, 398, 533, 354.
94 Ibid., 356, 363
95 Eaton, Temple Desecration, 304.
96 Schimmel, The Empire, 112.
97 Eaton, The Rise of Islam, 183.
98 Mukhia, The Mughals, 30
99 Ibid., 30-31, 37.
100 Schimmel, The Empire, 112.
101 Mukhia, The Mughals, 31.
102 Schimmel, The Empire, 114
103 Mukhia, The Mughals, 31-32, 35, 28-29.
104 Eaton, The Rise of Islam, 180-82.
105 Schimmel, The Empire, 113.
106 Haberman, Bhaktirasamritasindhu.
107 Mukhia, The Mughals, 23-24.
108 N. K. Sen, Hinduism, 89, citing the seventeenth-century Sufi Bawr Saheb, his Hindu disciple Biru Saheb, and his Muslim disciple Yari Shah.
109 Schimmel, The Empire, 111.
110 Petievich, “Dakani’s Radha-Krishna Imagery.”
111 Schimmel, The Empire, 137.
112 Stewart, “Satya Pir”; Fabulous Females.
113 Schimmel, The Empire, 17.
114 Narayana Rao, “Multiple Literary Cultures.”
115 Keay, India, 336.
116 Schimmel, The Empire, 238, 241.
117 Michell, Art and Architecture, 136-37.
118 Schimmel, The Empire, 238, 229.
119 Behl, Madhu Malati, xiii.
120 Keay, India, 336.
121 Michell, Art and Architecture, 141-42.
122 Babur, Baburnama, 365.
123 Keay, India, 316,
320.
124 Michell, Art and Architecture, 138-39.
125 Bakker, Ayodhya.
126 Michell, Art and Architecture, 134
127 Schimmel, The Empire, 282.
128 Ibid., 300.
129 Keay, India, 322, 334.
CHAPTER 20. HINDUISM UNDER THE MUGHALS 1 Amitav Ghosh, cited by Rushdie, Introduction to the Baburnama, ix.
2 Wujastyk, “Change and Creativity,” 110, citing P. V. Kane.
3 Ibid.
4 Olivelle, Renunciation in Hinduism: A Medieval Debate.
5 Lutgendorf, Hanuman’s Tale, 121, citing Bernard S. Cohn.
6 Haberman, Acting, 41.
7 Schimmel, The Empire, 237.
8 Lutgendorf, The Life of a Text, 99.
9 Lamb, “Personalizing the Ramayana,” 237.
10 Tulsi, Ramcaritmanas (The Holy Lake), 7.53; Hawley and Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India, 153.
11 Ramacaritamanasa of Tulsi Das, 3.23-24, 6.107-108.
12 Ibid., 6.108.7.
13 Beck, “Krishna as Loving Husband,” 71.
14 Bhattacharya, Love Songs of Chandidas, 107.
15 Flood, Introduction, 141.
16 Ibid., 139.
17 Dimock, Place of the Hidden Moon.
18 Mukhia, The Mughals, 39.
19 Sanford, “Holi Through Dauji’s Eyes,”109.
20 Openshaw, Seeking Bauls of Bengal.
21 Beck, “Krishna as Loving Husband,” 72-73.
22 Ibid., 78.
23 Haberman, Acting.
24 Beck, “Krishna as Loving Husband,” 76, quoting J. Farquhar in 1917.
25 Nathan and Seely, Grace and Mercy in Her Wild Hair.
26 McLean, Devoted to the Goddess; McDermott, Mother of My Heart.
27 Dilip Chitre, Introduction to Tukaram, Says Tuka, ix.
28 Ibid., xix, xiv, 119.
29 Tukaram, Says Tuka, 80.
30 Ibid., 86-87.
31 Gommans, The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, 82.
32 Digby, Warhorse and Elephant.
33 Babur, Baburnama, 446 and 463 (trans. Beveridge).
34 Keay, India, 325.
35 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-akbari, vol. 1, 140.
36 Schimmel, The Empire, 203.
37 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-akbari, vol. 1, 140.
38 Ibid.
39 Kelly, Marwari.
40 Doniger, “ ‘I Have Scinde.’ ”
41 Schimmel, The Empire, 52-53.
42 Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India, vol. 2, 206; citing Rousselet, “India and Its Native Princes,” 116.
43 Asutosh Bhattacarya, Folklore of Bengal, 49. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore, vol. 2, 206.
44 Hiltebeitel, The Cult of Draupadi, vol. 1, Mythologies, 101-102.
45 Ibid., 118, 122.
46 Sontheimer, “The Mallari/Khandoba Myth,” 155, 163.
47 Personal communication from Jack Stanley, Chicago, 1980.
48 Sontheimer, “Folk Hero, King and God.”
49 Sontheimer, “Some Incidents in the History of the God Khandoba,” 116.
50 Vinakaya, Sri Mallari Mahatmya.
51 Sontheimer, “The Mallari/Khandoba Myth,” 161.
52 Ibid., n. 16, citing the Sri Martanda Vijaya of Gandgadhara, 34.51 ff.
53 Vinakaya, Sri Mallari Mahatmya, 13.24.
54 Erndl, Victory to the Mother, 46. The story is found in oral tradition and numerous popular pamphlets.
55 Ibid., 96. From a Hindi oral version collected in Chandigarh, 1982-83.
56 Erndl notes, of her contemporary story: ”There is a controversy over whether he is the same as King Hariscandra of Ayodhya, an ancestor of Rama, or a local king of Haripur in District Kangra, H.P. [Himachal Pradesh].”
57 Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore, vol. 2, 206; citing Indian Antiquary, vol. 11, 325 ff; Panjab Notes and Queries, vol. 2.
58 Hiltebeitel, Rethinking the Mahbharata, 2.
59 Ibid., 121.
60 Ibid., 45, citing A. K. Ramanujan.
61 Ibid., 299.
62 Temple, Legends of the Punjab, vol. 1, 121-209.
63 Steel, “Folklore in the Panjab,” 35.
64 Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore, vol. 1, 211-13, citing Indian Antiquary, vol. 11, 33 ff; Cunningham, “Archaeological Reports,” vol. 17, 159; “Panjab Notes and Queries,” vol. 2, 1; John Campbell Oman, Cults, Customs, and Superstitions (1908), 68-82.
65 Rose, A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes, 179. From Nabha State, a princely Sikh state near the Punjab.
66 Subrahmanyam, “Friday’s Child,” 80.
67 Ibid., 81, quoting a French eyewitness account of 1714.
68 Ibid., 92-106, citing Arunachalam, Peeps into Tamil Literature; Desingu Rajan Kathai, 138 ff.
69 Subrahmanyam, “Friday’s Child,” 108-09.
70 Dalrymple, “Homer in India,” 51.
71 Ibid., 54
72 Joshi, Painted Folklore and Folklore Painters of India, 52.
73 Kramrisch, Unknown India, 87.
74 Agravat, Satyavadi Vir Tejapala.
75 Lopez, Religions of India in Practice.
76 Eaton, The Rise of Islam, 180-82.
77 Schimmel, The Empire, 156, 158, 161.
78 Ibid., 164.
79 Ibid., 144-15, 155-56.
80 Ibid., 143.
81 Ibid., 143, 147-49, 156.
82 Ibid., 151, 153.
83 Ibid., 155.
84 Dalrymple, White Moghuls, 34.
85 Schimmel, The Empire, 155.
86 Hawley and Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India, 126-27, 120, 132.
87 Ibid., 137.
88 Hawley, Three Bhakti Voices, 111.
89 Flood, Introduction, 143-44.
90 Nandy, “Sati as Profit,” 139, citing V. N. Datta, Sati, 13-14.
91 Abu’l Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari, vol. 1, 216.
92 Ibid., vol. 3, 449.
93 Nandy, “Sati as Profit,” 140.
94 Mukhia, The Mughals, 32, citing the Tuzuk-I Jahangiri, trans. Alexander Rogers, vol. 2, 180-81.
95 Ibid., 36.
96 Nandy, “Sati as Profit,” 140.
97 Schimmel, The Empire, 113.
98 Nau’i, Burning and Melting.
99 Sangari, “Perpetuating the Myth,” 27.
100 Schimmel, The Empire, 166.
101 Ramanujan et al., When God Is a Customer.
102 Ibid., 23.
103 Ibid., 24.
104 Ibid., 117-18.
CHAPTER 21. CASTE, CLASS, AND CONVERSION UNDER THE BRITISH RAJ 1 Kipling, Kim, 191.
2 Keay, India, 372.
3 Dirks, The Scandal of Empire, xiii.
4 Keay, India, 435
5 Ibid., 8, citing Magnus, King Edward the Seventh, 217-18.
6 Ibid., 18.
7 Dube, Untouchable Pasts, 11, quoting Nick Dirks, The Hollow Crown.
8 Keay, India, 447
9 Metcalf, A Concise History, 483.
10 Cannadine, Ornamentalism.
11 Dalrymple, The Last Mughal, 135.
12 Keay, India, 376, 382.
13 Dalrymple, White Moghuls, 33-34.
14 Keay, India, 402, 407, 425,
15 Jasanoff, Edge of Empire.
16 Keay, India, 432
17 Forster, A Passage to India, chapter 5.
18 Mukherjee, The Rise and Fall of the East India Company, 300-03.
19 Bolts, Considerations on Indian Affairs, 194.
20 Ranjit Roy, The Agony of West Bengal, 17.
21 Ibid., 389, 392.
22 Ibid., 414.
23 Kipling, Kim, chapter 11.
24 Keay, India, 450.
25 Klostermaier, Hinduism, 291.
26 Ibid., 428-29, 445.
27 Hardiman, The Coming of the Devi, 163; Eaton, “Conversion to Christianity Among the Nagas, 1876-1971,” 8, 32-33.
28 Spear, A History of India, 140.
29 Keay, India, 432, 434.
30 James, Raj,
237.
31 An anonymous tract called the Sadsat Jagannatha Brtanta, cited in Ignatius Soreng, Odisare o odiya sahitya re Christa dharma [Christianity in Orissa and in Oriya Literature]; Berhampur: Dipti Prakashani, 1998). I am indebted to Siddharth Satpathy for this reference.
32 Keay, India, 427,
33 Surendra Nath Sen, Eighteen Fifty Seven, 40-45.
34 Gubbins, An Account of the Mutinies in Oudh, 24-25.
35 Kaye, A History of the Sepoy War in India.
36 Metcalf, A Concise History of India, 100.
37 Keay, India, 438.
38 Metcalf, A Concise History of India, 100.
39 Keay, India, 438
40 Ibid., 443.
41 James, Raj, 237.
42 Ibid.
43 Rudrangshu Mukherjee, Mangal Pandey.
44 Forbes-Mitchell, Reminiscences of the Great Mutiny.
45 James, Raj, 251.
46 Keay, India, 441-42
47 Ibid., 446.
48 Ibid., 445.
49 Ibid., 429, 445-46.
50 Ibid., 425
51 Dalrymple, White Moghuls, 166.
52 Powell, Muslims and Missionaries, 117. I am indebted to Catherine Adcock for this citation.
53 Sutton, Orissa and its Evangelization, 40.
54 I owe this insightful comment, as well as the Sutton citation itself, to Siddharth Satpathy.
55 James, Raj, 237.
56 Keay, India, 419.
57 Gautama, Dharma-sutra 20.10.
58 Moon, The British Conquest, 427.
59 Southey, The Curse of Kehama, 9.
60 Ibid., 429, 431.
61 Forster, A Passage to India, chapter 18.
62 Jaffrelot, The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, 35.
63 Uma Mukherjee, Two Great Indian Revolutionaries, 16-17.
64 Urban, Tantra, 156-58.
65 Carnegy, A Historical Sketch of Tehsil Fyzabad; Narain, The Ayodhya Temple/Mosque Dispute, 8-9.
66 Van der Veer, Religious Nationalism, 153.
67 Forster, A Passage to India, 287.
68 Ernst, “Situating Sufism,” 24-25, citing the Dabistan, 149-50; translation, 239-40.
69 Dabistan, 147, 157; translation, 235, 251.
70 Ernst, “Situating Sufism,” 24-25, citing a letter of David DuBois, June 4, 2003.
71 Sheldon Pollock’s term; see “Deep Orientalism?: Notes on Sanskrit and Power Beyond the Raj.”
72 Buruma and Margalit, Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies.
73 Nandy, The Intimate Enemy, 52; Hwang, M. Butterfly.
74 Ramachandra Guha, “Sixty Years in Socks,”15.
75 Trautmann, Aryans and British India.
76 Keay, India, 431.
77 Rocher, Ezourvedam, 3, 19. The text was published in Asiatic Researches, Royal Asiatic Society, Bengal, 1822.
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