Berlin has a collection of buildings with resonances far beyond their immediate presence. The Reichstag on the edge of Berlin’s old political square mile is an apt metaphor for the fusing of the past and the present. Some might consider it also to serve as a symbol of reassurance for Lady Thatcher, since it was a British architect, Sir Norman Foster, who gave the building its present shape. Leaving aside the bizarre fact that a new German political correctness would like to do away with its old name which supposedly smacks of empire and imperialism, the building with its powerful and massive Wilhelmine Renaissance structure and its transparent, ultramodern glass cupola, represents very well Germany’s aspirations, past and present. During the last two decades of imperial Germany the Reichstag was the seat of an unruly parliament and the political focus of the ill-fated Weimar Republic. In early 1933 it was burnt down by a Communist arsonist who it is now believed was induced to do so by the Nazis, and in the years of Hitler’s dictatorship it stood as an empty shell. In the last days of World War II it became the center of hand-to-hand fighting between the Red Army and desperate Wehrmacht troops. Some traces of machine-gun fire can still be seen today as well as the graffiti that Soviet soldiers left behind in the basement.
The neoclassical Brandenburg Gate, erected just before the French Revolution, has witnessed events from Napoleon’s triumphant entry in 1806 to the victorious return of the Prussian guards from Paris in 1871; from the bitterness of civil war in 1918–19 to the torchlight parade of Hitler’s storm troopers on the evening of January 30, 1933; from the blockade of Berlin by Stalin in 1948–49 to the building and dismantling of the wall in 1961 and 1989 respectively. A few yards south of the gate is a space where in 1938–9 Albert Speer, Hitler’s legendary architect, built in record time the vast Neue Reichskanzlerei for the Führer. In 1945 a marble monument of the same stone was erected nearby, complete with vintage Soviet guns and tanks, to commemorate the victories of the Red Army between 1941 and 1945—there is no mention of course of their collaboration with Hitler and his henchmen two years previously. The same stone was used to build the Soviet embassy, the seat of Stalin’s proconsul in central Europe which is today post-Soviet Russia’s embassy. To the west of the gate extend many miles of a route used for centuries by traders and armies, interrupted only by the “siegessäule,” a column celebrating Prussia’s victory over France in 1871. Crowned by a gilt bronze goddess of victory, the column is adorned with gun barrels in a celebration of military triumph. To the east is the old promenade, “Unter den Linden,” which once led to the splendid baroque Town Palace, built for the first Prussian king. Demolished in 1952 by the East German regime, it became an empty space where the proletariat assembled from time to time to thank its leaders for their existence.
In a landscape saturated with history and littered with monuments to human folly, the five decades of the Bismarckian empire stand out, for better and for worse, as the formative period of modern Germany. The nation-state which he created in 1871, notwithstanding European integration and economic globalization, is still the mold of political life. German corporatism, that perennial intimacy between big business and big finance, is only slowly opening up to the challenges of the world economy. The welfare state is still the fortress of social equilibrium and state control. Federalism of the age-old German type, entrenched in sixteen land capitals from Hamburg to Munich, is far from being a spent force in the Europe of Brussels. Of the many chapters of history none has formed and transformed Germany more deeply than the one that began at Versailles and was to end, forty-eight years later, at Versailles. Much as the Germans may have changed, Germany continues to be at the center of the ongoing drama of European history.
KEY FIGURES
Adenauer, Konrad (1876–1967). Son of Prussian noncommissioned officer, studied law, married into patrician family in Cologne, Mayor of Cologne 1917–33. First Chancellor of Federal Republic of Germany, pater patriae.
Ballin, Albert (1857–1918). German industrialist from Jewish family, turned Hamburg-America line into biggest shipping company of pre-1914 world. Advised the Kaiser against building battle fleet.
Bebel, August (1840–1913). Son of Prussian non-commissioned officer, became a turner and set up successful business. Leader of Social Democratic Party, called “the workers’ Bismarck.”
Berlepsch, Hans Baron von (1843–1926). High civil servant in Prussia, led negotiations with striking miners in 1889, subsequently Prussian Minister of Commerce.
Bernstein, Eduard (1850–1932). Social democratic politician of Jewish background. Although favored by Marx and Engels, he became the leading spirit of reformism.
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von (1856–1921). High civil servant, Chancellor 1909–17. A Hamlet character whose insights about the nature of William II’s rule and the likely effect of war far exceeded his willingness to act.
Bismarck, Otto Prince (after 1871) von (1815–98). Conservative firebrand from Junker stock, expert in anti-revolutionary nation building. “Iron Chancellor” driven by cauchemar des coalitions. 3 vols of worthwhile memoirs.
Bülow, Bernhard von (1849–1929). Prince 1905, Foreign Secretary, Chancellor 1900–9. His vanity conspicuously exceeded his capacities. Reintroduced protectionist tariffs, supported battle fleet. 4 vols of bragging memoirs.
Caprivi, Leo von (1831–99). Count 1891, infantry general in charge of Reich Naval Office, successor to Bismarck as Chancellor 1890–94. Favored détente with Russia and informal alliance with Britain, was hated by agricultural lobby and nationalists. Unfairly overlooked.
Clemenceau, Georges (1841–1929). Radical French politician, called “le tigre,” who would never forgive Germany for annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Prime Minister 1917–20, determined hopeless French strategy at Paris peace conference.
Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz (1852–1925). Austrian Chief of Staff 1906–11, 1912–17), chiefly responsible for aggressive Austro-Hungarian strategy in the Balkans 1908 and 1914. Instead of saving the monarchy through military triumph, he led it to ruin.
Disraeli, Benjamin, (after 1876) Lord Beaconsfield (1804–81). Tory leader, warned against “German revolution” in 1871, as British Prime Minister cooperated with Bismarck at Berlin Congress 1878 to prevent war with Russia.
Ebert, Friedrich (1871–1925). Social Democratic leader, in 1918 head of provisional government, forged alliance with Military High Command, first President of Weimar Republic.
Eisner, Kurt (1867–1919). Socialist leader in Bavaria, proclaimed republic on November 7, 1918, murdered on February 21, 1919 in Munich.
Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914). Archduke of Austria and successor to all the Habsburg crowns. Reform-minded, reorganized land and naval forces, married for love, murdered by Bosnian Serb on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo with his wife.
Franz Joseph I (1830–1916). Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Presided over decline and fall of the Habsburg Empire. A bureaucrat, no vision, old school.
Frederick III (1831–88). German Emperor for 99 days, died of cancer. Married to Vicky, Princess Royal. Reform-minded. Took with him the hopes of liberal Germany.
Gambetta, Leon (1838–82). French politician, favored a radical republic. Escaped from encircled Paris in 1870 to organize war à l’outrance against German armies. But the moderates wanted peace and he had to resign.
Gaulle, Charles de (1890–1969). French army officer and statesman. After education at St. Cyr, served in 33rd Regiment under Pétain, taken prisoner at Verdun. Lifelong love-hate relationship with Germany.
Grey, Sir Edward (1862–1933). British Foreign Secretary 1905–16, turned Entente Cordiale with France into anti-German alliance and forced accession of Russia in 1907 against massive doubts in Liberal Party.
Haldane, Richard Burdon (1856–1928). Viscount 1911, British Secretary for War, impressed by Prussian army, reformed British forces after Boer War. Went to Berlin to achieve naval arms control in 1912.
Hindenburg, Paul von (1847–1934). Prussian field marshal. Aft
er defeating Russian armies in 1914 became popular hero and Germany’s war leader 1916–18. Helped Hitler into power in 1933.
Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945). Son of minor Austrian official, formed by pre-1914 Vienna gutter milieu, volunteered to serve in Bavarian regiment, badly wounded at Western Front, decided to become politician. Totalitarian leader and “incarnation of evil” (Hans Bernd von Haeften).
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, Chlodwig Prince (1819–1901). From south German grand family, as Chancellor he failed to leave any mark on politics except allowing William II to unfold his persönliches Regiment.
Joffre, Joseph (1852–1931). Maréchal de France, as member of Supreme Defense Council he was responsible for mobilization. Chiefly responsible for the miracle de la Marne in September 1914, member of Académie française 1918.
Katkov, Michael Nikiforowitsch (1818–87). Influenced by Hegel and impressed by British political system, in mid-life he became vocal spokesman for Tsarist absolutism based no longer on divine right but on radical Pan-Slavism. Sleepless workaholic.
Krupp, Friedrich (1812–87). Industrialist in Essen, the “king of the guns.” Rose from small foundry business to commanding heights of German heavy industry. His “Villa Hügel,” overlooking the Ruhr valley, of imperial dimensions.
Legien, Carl (1861–1920). German trade unionist. After fall of Bismarck’s anti-socialist legislation, Legien accepted government offer to bring workers into political system. Interlocutor of Military High Command during World War I and promoter of political compromise in 1918–19.
Lenin, Wladimir Iljitsch (1870–1924). Russian revolutionary, helped by German High Command to overthrow Tsarist regime weakened by war. Proclaimed world peace through world revolution. Ordered Trotsky to sign Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a mere prelude to Germany’s social revolution. Liebknecht, Karl (1871–1919). German socialist leader and, with Rosa Luxemburg, founder of Communist Party of Germany 1918. Shot by Freikorps troops.
Ludendorff, Erich (1865–1937). German military leader in World War I, single-minded militarist, wanted to force decision at Eastern Front, broke off Verdun strategy of “bleeding France white.” In all but name, military dictator 1916–18.
Ludwig II (1845–86). King of Bavaria. Fanciful character, sponsored Richard Wagner, incurred huge debt through building his fantasies, was bribed by Bismarck into offering imperial rank to King of Prussia, became more and more mentally deranged.
Luxemburg, Rosa (1870–1919). Leading light among Marxist thinkers, militant German socialist and sensuous woman. Came from Jewish stetl in Russia, studied economics in Zurich. Organizer of Spartakus group and co-founder of Communist Party. Murdered by Freikorps troops in Berlin.
Max, Prince of Baden (1867–1929). Last Chancellor of Bismarckian Empire, liberal successor to the Grand Ducal crown of Baden. Appointed Chancellor October 3, 1918 to sue for peace. Transformed constitution, pronounced abdication of William II.
Moltke, Helmuth von (1800–91). Count 1870, Prussian field marshal, a legend in his time, integrated modern technology into warfare and won three wars (1864–71).
Napoleon III (1808–73). Empereur des Français 1852–70. After coup d’état forged a synthesis of authoritarian government and popular base. Sponsor of Italian nationalism, but opposed Prussian unification of Germany. Imprisoned at Sedan.
Nicolas II (1868–1918). Tsar of all the Russians. Wanted to continue autocracy, but was the weakest of all Russian rulers. Stumbled into Great War. Murdered by Bolsheviks.
Pétain, Philippe (1856–1951). Maréchal de France, an independent mind before 1914, Germany became his destiny. Successful commander 1914–18, restored morale among the shattered French troops, won great prestige. President of Vichy France 1940–45.
Rathenau, Walther (1867–1922). One of the most powerful industrialists of his time and a prolific writer, a Jewish outsider to the Jewish cause and a German outsider to the German cause. Organized German economic war effort and became Foreign Minister of Weimar Republic. Assassinated in 1922.
Scheidemann, Philipp (1865–1939). Socialist leader, proclaimed republic November 9, 1918 from window of Reichstag. One of 6 “people’s commissars,” appointed Ministerpräsident by Ebert in February 1919, resigned over Versailles Treaty.
Schlieffen, Alfred Count von (1833–1913). Chief of Prussian General Staff 1891–1905. The grand strategy named after him was a vast gamble, turning war on two fronts from a possibility to be avoided at all costs into an inevitable predicament.
Stresemann, Gustav (1878–1929). Liberal leader and Foreign Minister of Weimar Republic from 1923. From modest background, ambitious and energetic, confidant of the Military High Command, distrusted in Reichstag, described himself as Vernunftrepublikaner, i.e., a Republican not through emotion but through reason.
Thiers, Adolphe (1797–1877). Moderate French politician under July monarchy. In opposition to Napoleon III. Opposed war against Germany, feared social revolution if war could not be stopped, negotiated peace with Bismarck 1871.
Tirpitz, Alfred (1849–1930). Ennobled 1900, naval officer, over-ambitious, energetic and able, designed grand strategy against Britain and planned battle fleet accordingly. A single-minded military man, he failed to grasp the fatal implications.
William I (1797–1888). King of Prussia, proclaimed German Emperor in 1871. A military man throughout his life; no Dr. Faustus, he found his Mephisto in Bismarck. Utterly unpopular as a diehard in 1848, he became the incarnation of the “good old days” once they were past.
William II (1859–1941). King of Prussia and German Emperor. “A most brilliant failure,” his uncle Edward VII called him. Highly talented and utterly superficial, he wanted to create a kind of charismatic rule based on imperial glory and material well-being. He not only misread industrial Germany, but also found himself caught in a military confrontation that he had never anticipated. His afterlife in exile showed only unlimited banality of thought and action.
Wilson, Woodrow (1856–1924). 28th US President. Led USA into World War I, wanted to give direction and meaning to war effort through “Fourteen Points,” but failed to impose his idealism on the European politicians assembled at the peace conference in 1919. At home, Congress refused to foot the bill and allow the United States to be drawn into precisely those entangling alliances that George Washington had advised against and that had cost so many lives during the war.
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