by James Millar
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hosking, Geoffrey. (1973). The Russian Constitutional Experiment: Government and Duma, 1907-14. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pares, Sir Bernard. (1939). The Fall of the Russian Monarchy. London: Jonathan Cape. Pinchuk, Ben-Cion. (1974). The Octobrists in the Third Duma, 1907-12. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Tokmakoff, George. (1981). P. A. Stolypin and the Third Duma: An Appraisal of Three Major Issues. Washington, DC: University Press of America.
JOHN M. THOMPSON
DUNAYEVSKY, ISAAK OSIPOVICH
(1900-1955), composer.
The Soviet composer Isaak Dunayevsky has been compared to Irving Berlin and the other great songsters of the 1930s and 1940s in America. Like Berlin, he was a Russian-born Jewish composer whose musical fertility gained him fame and wealth in the realm of popular songs and musical comedy for film and stage. Unlike the American, he spent his most productive years under the shadow of the Great Dictator, Josef Stalin. This meant walking a tightrope from which a slight breeze could topple him. That tightrope was Soviet mass song, a genre embedded within a larger cultural system known as Socialist Realism, the officially established code of creativity fashioned in the early 1930s. Mass song required both political message and broad popular appeal, a combination usually possible only in moments of urgent national solidarity, as in wartime. Irving Berlin united these elements successfully in the two world wars, and in between settled for the unpolitical forms of love ballads and novelty tunes. Dunayevsky had to sustain the combination before, after, and during World War II.
Dunayevsky, born near Kharkov in Ukraine, began as a student of classical music. After the Russian Revolution, he played with avant-garde forms but eventually settled into composing popular music. His first big hit was the score for Makhno’s Escapades (1927), a circus scenario that mocked the civil war anarchist leader of a Ukrainian partisan band opposed to the Bolsheviks. Dunayevsky went on to compose some twenty film scores, a dozen operettas, and music for two bal416
DUNGAN
lets and about thirty dramas. His lasting legacy is the music from the enormously popular musical films of the 1930s: Happy-Go-Lucky Guys, Circus, Volga, Volga, and Radiant Road, all featuring the singing star of the era, Lyubov Orlova, and directed by her husband, Grigory Alexandrov. A fountain of melody, Dunayevsky wove elements of folk song, Viennese operetta styles, and jazz into optimistic declamatory tunes that captivated Soviet listeners for decades. The lyrics of the most famous of these, “Vast Is My Native Land” (1936), from the film Circus, celebrated the official image of Russia as a great nation, filled with free and happy citizens. The Dunayevsky mode was overshadowed somewhat during World War II, when more somber and intimate songs prevailed. His postwar hit, the music for Kuban Cossacks (1950), enhanced the propaganda value of that film, which idealized the affluence of Cossacks and peasants on the collective farms of the Kuban region. Dunayevsky died in 1955. See also: MOTION PICTURES; SOCIALIST REALISM
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jelagin, Juri. (1951). Taming of the Arts, tr. N. Wreden. New York: Dutton. Starr, S. Frederick. (1983). Red and Hot: The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union. New York: Oxford University Press. Stites, Richard. (1992). Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
RICHARD STITES
the Kansu province settled in Kyrgyzstan and today number approximately 30,000. Rebels from the Shensi province generally settled in Kazakhstan, where they number roughly 37,000. The third group fled to the Russian Empire later in 1881.
After their exodus, the rebels (named Dolgans by the Russians) cut off all contact with China, but nevertheless continued to refer to themselves as Chinese Muslims (Hui-Zu). They settled mainly along the Chu River on the banks of which the Kyr-gyz capital of Bishkek (named Frunze in the Soviet period) is situated. This river also forms part of the border between Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
The Dungan language is Mandarin Chinese, but with heavy influence of Persian (Farsi), Arabic, and Turkish. In addition to Dungani, many speak Kyr-gyz, and the younger ones also speak Russian. Dungani is written not in Chinese characters but Cyrillic script, and has three tones rather than four.
Generally, the Dungans in Kyrgyzstan are less devoted as Muslims than their kin in Kazakhstan. All Dungans subscribe to the Hanafite Muslim school of thought, established by the theologian Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767), who has shaped the Central Asian form of Islam. While elderly Dun-gans strictly observe Islamic law, their younger offspring usually ignore Islam until they reach their forties. Elders run village mosques, and the clergymen are supported by property taxes and the worshipers’ donations. At present, although the Bible has been translated into Dungani, no Dungans are Christians. Living mostly in the river valleys, the Dungans are primarily farmers and cattle breeders, although some grow opium.
DUNGAN
The Dungans (Dungani) are descendants of the Hui people who traveled to the northwestern provinces of China, namely the Kansu and Shensi provinces from the seventeenth to thirteenth centuries. Originally scholars, merchants, soldiers, and handicraftsmen, they gradually intermarried with the Han Chinese. Although they learned the Chinese language, they also retained their knowledge of the Arabic language and Muslim faith. From 1862 to 1878 the Hui people rebelled, and the Chinese emperor ruthlessly suppressed them. Three groups of Hui rebels fled across the Tien Shan mountains into Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Those who lived in See also: CENTRAL ASIA; ISLAM; NATIONALITIES POLICIES, SOVIET; NATIONALITIES POLICIES, TSARIST
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dyer, Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff. (1979). Soviet Dungan Kolkhozes in the Kirghiz SSR and the Kazakh SSR. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Israeli, Raphael. (1982). The Crescent in the East: Islam in Asia Major. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Curzon Press. Javeline, Debra. (1997). Islam Yes, Islamic State No for Muslim Kazakhstanis. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Media Reaction, USIA. Kim, Ho-dong. (1986). “The Muslim Rebellion and the Kashghar Emirate in Chinese Central Asia, 1864-1877.” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.
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Li, Shujiang, and Luckert, Karl W., (1994). Mythology and Folklore of the Hui, a Muslim Chinese People. Albany: State University of New York Press.
JOHANNA GRANVILLE
Gheith, Jehanne. (1999). “Durova.” In Russian Literature in the Age of Pushkin and Gogol: Prose, ed. Christine A. Rydel. Dictionary of Literary Biography, 1999. Detroit: Gale Research.
MARY ZIRIN
DUROVA, NADEZHDA ANDREYEVNA
(1783-1855), cavalry officer and writer.
Nadezhda Durova (“Alexander Alexandrov,” “Cavalry Maiden”) served in the tsarist cavalry throughout Russia’s campaigns against Napoleon. Equally remarkably, in the late 1830s she published memoirs of those years (The Cavalry Maiden [Kava-lerist-devitsa], 1836; Notes [Zapiski], 1839) and fiction in the Gothic/Romantic vein drawn from her military experience, much of it narrated by a female officer. At first she masqueraded as a boy, but in December 1807 Alexander II learned of the woman soldier in his army and, impressed by accounts of her courage in the East Prussian campaign, gave her a commission in the Mariupol Hussars under his name, Alexandrov. In 1811 Durova transferred to the Lithuanian Uhlans. During the Russian retreat to Moscow in 1812 she served in the rear guard, engaging in repeated clashes with the French. Bored with peacetime service and annoyed at not receiving promotion, Durova resigned her commission in 1816. She became briefly famous after The Cavalry Maiden was published, an experience she described laconically in “A Year of Life in St. Petersburg” (God zhizni v Peterburge, 1838), before retreating to provincial obscurity in Yelabuga, where she was known as an amiable eccentric woman with semi-masculine mannerisms and dress. Durova’s memoirs omit inconvenient facts (an early marriage; the birth of her son), but she was a gifted storyteller, and her tales are rich in astute, humorous observations of military life as an outsider saw it. Her biography, heavily romanticized,
became a propaganda tool during World War II, but The Cavalry Maiden was reprinted in full in the Soviet Union only in the 1980s. See also: FRENCH WAR OF 1812; MILITARY, IMPERIAL ERA; NAPOLEON I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Durova, Nadezhda. (1988). The Cavalry Maiden, ed. and tr. Mary Fleming Zirin. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
DVOEVERIE
“Dvoeverie”-“double-belief” or “dual faith”-is a highly influential concept in Russian studies, which began to be questioned in the 1990s. Since the 1860s, historians have used it to describe the conscious or unconscious preservation of pagan beliefs and/or rituals by Christian communities (generally as a syncretic faith containing Christian and pagan elements; a form of peasant/female resistance to elite/patriarchal Christianity; or two independent belief-systems held concurrently). This concept has colored academic perception of Russian medieval (and often modern) spirituality, leading to a preoccupation with identifying latent paganism in Russian culture. It has often been considered a specifically Russian phenomenon, with the medieval origins of the term cited as evidence.
This definition of dvoeverie is supported in part by one text, the eleventh-century Sermon of the Christlover, but its notable absence in other anti-pagan polemics (including those regularly cited as evidence of double-belief), plus many uses of the word in different contexts, lead one to conclude that the term was not originally understood in this way. Dvoeverie probably originated as a calque from Greek, via the translated Nomocanon. While at least six Greek constructions are translated as dvoeverie or a lexical derivative thereof, the common thread is that of being “in two minds”; being unable to decide or agree, or being unable to perceive the true nature of something. In the majority of these cases, there is no question of there being two faiths in which the practitioner believes simultaneously or even alternately, and sometimes no question of religious faith at all.
In other pre-Petrine texts, dvoeverie means “du-plicitous” or “hypocritical,” or relates to an inability or unwillingness to identify solely with the one true and Orthodox faith. Lutherans and those fraternizing with Roman Catholics, rather than semi-converted heathens, were the target of this pejorative epithet. See also: ORTHODOXY; PAGANISM
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Levin, Eve. (1993) “Dvoeverie and Popular Religion.” In Seeking God: The Recovery of Religious Identity in Orthodox Russia, Ukraine, and Georgia ed. S. K. Batalden. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. Rock, Stella. (2001). “What’s in a Word? A Historical Study of the Concept Dvoeverie.” Canadian-American Slavic Studies, 35(1):19-28.
STELLA ROCK
DVORIANSTVO
The term dvorianstvo is sometimes translated as “gentry,” but often historically such a translation is simply incorrect. At other times, such as between the years 1667 and 1700, and again after 1762 (or 1785) until 1917, “gentry” is misleading but not totally wrong.
The term has its origins in the later Middle Ages in the word dvor, “princely court.” In that historical context, the dvorianstvo were those who worked at the court of a prince. Originally such people might be free men, or they might be slaves of the prince or someone else. Moreover, these men, most of whom were cavalrymen and a few of whom were administrators, were wholly dependent on the grand prince for their positions, status, and livelihoods. They did not have lands, but lived off booty, funds collected in the line of governmental duty, and funds collected by others for the sovereign’s treasury. Their social origins were most diverse. A handful were princes (descendants of one of the princely houses circulating in Rus’: the Rus’ Riurikids, the Lithuanian Gedemids, or Turkic/Mongol nobility), some were slaves, others were of diverse origins. A prince or nobleman had no right to be a member of the dvorianstvo, for such men got their positions because they were selected by the grand prince and served at his pleasure. Promotion within the dvorianstvo was meritocratic, however service might be defined. Membership in the dvorianstvo conferred no special status, and in law such men could be punished like everyone else, including flogging.
The origins of the early dvorianstvo are obscure, but around 1480, the Moscow government began to formalize the situation when it initiated the first service class revolution after the annexation of Novgorod. Moscow initiated the service land system (pomestie) on the lands annexed from Novgorod, and then gradually extended it to the entire Muscovite state. By 1556 most of the inhabited land (which did not belong to the church) in central Muscovy was included in the fund that had to support cavalrymen. The cavalrymen based in Moscow were the upper service class; those in the provinces were the middle service class. (Members of the lower service class did not have lands for their support and lived off government cash salaries, and their own extra-military employment; they were arquebusiers-later in the seventeenth century musketeers, fortress gatekeepers, artillerymen, some cossacks, and others.) Members of both the upper and middle service classes comprised the dvorianstvo and were the core of the army. They had to render military service almost every year, typically on the southern frontier against the Tatars, Nogais, Kalmyks, Kazakhs, and others who raided Muscovy in search of slaves and other booty. The dvorianstvo had to render military service on the western frontier whenever called against the Poles, Lithuanians, and Swedes, where the prizes for the victors were landed territory and booty (including slaves) of every sort.
Between 1480 and 1667 the life of the dvo-rianstvo was very hard. Military service was basically for life, from about age fifteen until immobility compelled retirement from service. Those who could no longer serve as cavalrymen still could be called upon to render “siege service,” which meant standing up in castles and shooting arrows out at besieging enemies. In the seventeenth century gunpowder arms replaced the arrows. Only when the member of the dvorianstvo was dead or could only be carried around in a litter was he allowed to retire from service. Members of the provincial dvo-rianstvo had the ranks of provincial dvorianin and syn boyarsky and were supported primarily by a handful of peasant households (government cash stipends were meant to purchase military goods in the market, such as cavalry horses, sabers, and guns in the seventeenth century and later). In the provinces they lived little better than most of their peasants and until the post-1649 period were as illiterate as their peasants also. The capital dvo-rianstvo, living in Moscow, had the ranks of bo-yarin, okol’nichii, stol’nik, striapchii, and Moscow dvorianin, lived the same rigorous lives as did their country cousins, although with higher incomes. Both rose in the dvorianstvo on the basis of perceived meritocratic service by petitioning for promotion. Because of their precarious economic positions, the provincial dvorianstvo were highly conscious of how many rent-paying peasants they had. Should their peasants depart, they were in
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straits. They were the ones who forced the enserf-ment of the peasantry between the 1580s and 1649.
The Ulozhenie of 1649, which completed the en-serfment by binding the peasants to the land, was a triumph for the provincial dvorianstvo, and a defeat for the capital dvorianstvo, who profited from peasant mobility. The Thirteen Years’ War (1654-1667) delivered the coup de grace to the middle service class provincial dvorianstvo by illustrating definitively the obsolescence of bow-and-arrow warfare. Moreover, much of the dvorianstvo fell into Turkish captivity, where many of them remained for a quarter century. From then until 1700, the dvorianstvo occasionally fought the Turks, but otherwise did little to merit their near-monopoly over serf labor. Reflecting the fact that Russia was a very poor country with a very unproductive agriculture, the dvo-rianstvo comprised less than 1 percent of the population, a much smaller fraction than in other countries. After the annexation of Poland, the dvo-rianstvo of the Russian Empire rose by 1795 to 2.2 percent of the population.
At the battle of Narva in 1700 Charles XII defeated Peter the Great, who responded by launching the second service class revolution. This meant putting the dvorianstvo back
in harness. In 1722 he introduced the Table of Ranks, which formalized the Muscovite system of promotion based on merit. Rigorous lifetime military or governmental service was compulsory until 1736, when the service requirement for the dvorianstvo was reduced to twenty-five years. In 1740 they could choose between military or civil service. Then in 1762 Peter III freed the dvorianstvo from all service requirements. His wife Catherine II in 1785 promulgated the Charter of the Nobility, whose infamous Article 10 freed the dvorianstvo from corporal punishment and thus made them a privileged caste. The measures of 1762 and 1785 created the conditions for the Russian dvorianstvo to begin to look like gentry living elsewhere in Europe west of Russia.
The years 1762 to 1861 were the “Golden Age” of the dvorianstvo. Its members were the potentially leisured, privileged members of society. Many differed little from peasants; a few were extraordinarily rich. They were the bearers and creators of culture. The Achilles heel of the dvorianstvo was its penchant for debt to finance excessive consumption, including imported goods that were equated with modernization and Westernization. The emancipation of the peasantry in 1861 initiated the decline of the dvorianstvo, whose members lost their slave-owner-like control over their peasants. The dvorianstvo was compensated (excessively) for the land granted to the peasants, but debts were deducted from the compensation. Other reforms gradually cost the dvorianstvo their control over the countryside. Their inability to manage their funds and estates and in general to cope with a modernizing world is metonymically portrayed in Anton. P. Chekhov’s play The Cherry Orchard, which came to be the name of the era for the dvorianstvo. By the Revolution of 1917 the dvorianstvo lost control over their initial bastion, the army, and nearly all other sectors of life as well. In the summer of 1917 the peasantry seized much of the dvorianstvo land, which was all confiscated when the Bolsheviks took power. Some members of the dvorianstvo joined the Whites and died in opposition to the Bolsheviks, while others emigrated. Those who remained in the USSR were deprived of their civil rights until 1936. See also: BOYAR; CHARTER OF THE NOBILITY; LAW CODE OF 1649; MILITARY, IMPERIAL ERA; SYN BOYARSKY; TABLE OF RANKS