by Imani Perry
Black National Anthem: generational experiences of, xi–xiii; “Lift Every Voice and Sing” as, xii, xiii, 1, 9, 15–17, 24, 33, 34, 37–39, 45, 55, 60, 62–63, 65, 81–82, 154, 167, 173, 177, 225; “Ethiopia, Land of Our Fathers” as, 33, 34; as anathema to goals of full citizenship, 37–38
Black nationalism: red, black, and green flag as symbol of, 32; and East St. Louis riots, 34; and Marcus Garvey, 36, 185; Walter Daykin on, 61–63; Thomas Gilbert Standing on, 63; and institution building, 168, 179, 183, 193; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 179, 184, 218; and community school movement, 182; defeat of, 194, 199
Black Panther Party, 173, 176–77, 182, 185
Black political life: and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” xiv, 26, 47, 55–56, 58, 99, 109, 116, 125, 129–30, 134–35, 139, 140, 141–42, 145, 202, 203–4, 205, 206, 208–9, 210, 225; and voting rights, 3, 4–5; growth in organizations, 5, 6, 12, 36, 61; and Reconstruction, 8; Alain Locke on, 25–26; and NAACP, 27, 29–30, 32, 36, 55, 60, 85, 125–26; and black press, 27, 115; and internationalist undercurrent, 29, 32–33, 60, 129, 133, 142, 200; and James Weldon Johnson, 30; and International Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World, 33; and pageantry, 42; role of black women in, 52; and freedom movement, 52, 95, 130, 133–34, 139, 145, 146, 161, 168, 175, 194, 201, 202, 207, 209, 222; Walter Daykin on, 61–63; white scholars on, 61–64, 65; Thomas Gilbert Standing on, 63–64; and range of political ideologies, 63–64, 65, 125, 126–27, 139, 201, 202, 207, 210; and black identity, 63–64, 118; and youth branches of organizations, 72; and black teachers, 85; and World War II, 109, 115–16; politics of representation, 113–14; and mass media, 115; and Pan-African Congress of 1945, 124; and election of 1948, 126–28; and black leadership in electoral politics, 201–6, 208, 210, 215–16, 224; and Ronald Reagan, 205–9. See also Civil rights movement; Leftist politics; Montgomery Bus Boycott
Black power: and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” xii, 163, 166, 167, 168, 173–83, 184, 185, 187–91, 193, 202, 212; and Stokely Carmichael’s “Black Power” speech, 164–65; and soul, 166–67; and Martin Luther King Jr., 168, 172; and hip-hop, 213
Black press: rise of, 5; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 16; and racial domination as global phenomenon, 21, 27; and black women’s organizations, 24; and New Negro, 27; and black political life, 27, 115; international scope of, 35; on black world, 39; on pageants, 41; Walter Daykin on, 62; and Augusta Savage’s The Harp, 70; and children’s pages in newspapers, 72; and Carter G. Woodson, 91; on black citizenship, 114–15; and Pan-African Congress of 1945, 124; and W. E. B. DuBois, 129; disappearance of, 198. See also specific newspapers and journals
Black radicalism: and NAACP, 29, 55; and Little Red School House, 54; and black leftists, 54–56; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 56, 125, 192; and black churches, 60; and visual arts, 67; appeal of, 112; and Pan-African congresses, 123; and W. E. B. DuBois, 124; and SNYC, 125; and mainstream black politics, 128, 137; and freedom movement, 133–34, 139, 194; and colonialism, 136; diminishment of, 144–45, 194; and March on Washington, 155; and Stokely Carmichael, 164–65; and Sonia Sanchez, 174; and Nairobi College, 183–84, 185; and National Black Political Convention, 201; and Grenada, 207. See also Black nationalism; Black power; Communists; Leftist politics; Socialists
Black schools. See Black educational life; Historically black colleges and universities; School segregation
Black self-determination, 32
Black Star flag of Ghana, 173
“Black Star Line Band and Choir,” 32
Black Swan Records, 49–50
Black women: clothing of, 9; sexual assault of, 14; pageants written by, 40–42; in black political life, 52, 136, 138; employment of, 68; and Negro History Week programs, 93, 94–95; in civil rights movement, 155; Ronald Reagan on “welfare queens,” 206; Million Woman March, 216
Black women’s organizations: and respectability, 8; growth of, 13–14; characterizations of, 14; influence of, 16; and Chautauqua Circle, 23–24; and Pan-African Congress of 1927, 39; and black teachers, 86, 93; and Martin Luther King Jr., 141
Black writers and literature: and racial uplift, 5; and New Negro Era, 26, 42–45; Thomas Gilbert Standing on, 63; and New Deal policies, 66–67; and postblackness, 220–21. See also Harlem Renaissance; and specific authors
Black youth: and institutionalization of “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 72, 89–90; and knowledge of “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 89–90, 150, 154, 174, 190, 193, 224; mass media’s focus on issues of, 112; and sit-ins, 146–47, 154, 188; and civil rights movement, 152–53; and black protest, 186; and national youth coalition, 206; and Ferguson, Missouri, 223–24. See also Black educational life
Blake, Eubie, 114
Blakey, Art, 187
Blige, Mary J., 214
Blue Ark, 176
Blues Brothers band, 211
Blues music, 22, 49, 50, 51, 71, 83, 213
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, 27
Bond, Horace Mann, 80, 143
Bond, Julian, xiii, 80
Bond, Mattye Tollette, 87–88
Bontemps, Arna: Popo and Fifina, 92; You Can’t Pet a Possum, 92
Booker T. Washington Elementary School, Topeka, Kans., 104
Booker T. Washington High School, Miami, Fla., 84
Borders, William, “I Am Somebody,” 193
Boston, Mass., 193–94
Boyd, Herb, 88–89
Brando, Marlon, 166
Brewster McCloud (film), 190–91
Bright, Nelly, 195
Brooke, Edward, 203
Brooks, Gwendolyn, 21, 66, 203
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 61, 116, 141
Browder v. Gayle (1956), 140–41
Brown, Charlotte Hawkins, 86, 93, 94–95
Brown, James, 166, 191
Brown, John, 47, 134, 162
Brown, Linda, 104, 105
Brown, Lloyd, “Words and White Chauvinism,” 134–35
Brown, Mike, 223–24
Brown, Robert, 202
Brown, Sterling, 78; “Salutamus,” 44–45
Brown, Tony, 207–8
Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 102–5, 139, 146
Bruce, John Edward, 92
Bumpers, Eleanor, 212
Bunche, Ralph, 60, 93, 123, 133, 145, 154, 168
Burleigh, Harry T., 71, 96
Burroughs, Margaret, 204
Burroughs, Nannie Helen, 78
Bush, George W., 218
Butler, Selena Sloan, 23–24
“Buy black” initiative, 207
Byrd, Rudolph, xiii
“Cabaret for Freedom,” 148–49
Caliver, Ambrose, 112, 113–14
Calloway, Clinton, 75
Cambridge, Godfrey, 148, 149
Camp Dunroven, Pine Bush, N.Y., 99, 106
Capitalism, 27, 29, 169, 196–97
Caravan Puppeteers, 125
Carawan, Guy, 147–48, 149
Caribbean, 112, 123, 135, 168, 206, 212
Carmichael, Stokely: “Black Power” speech, 164–65; and Martin Luther King Jr., 166; and Nairobi Day School, 182; and Nairobi College, 184; migration abroad, 199
Carpenter, Gladys, 171
Carter, Jimmy, 205
Carter, Robert, 103
Carter, Roland, 186–87
Carter G. Woodson Collection, Queens Central Library, 101
Cartwright, Keith, xiii, 16–17
Carver, George Washington, 89, 93, 97
Catholic Church, 186
The Cavalcade, 124
Cavett, Dick, 189–90
Cedarleaf, Douglas, 120
Central America, 128
Central High School, Little Rock, Ark., 104, 142, 146
Chaney, James, 205
Charles, Ray, 189–90
Chautauqua, N.Y., 23
Chautauqua Circle, 23–24
Chautauqua movement, 23
Chavis, Benjamin, 216
Chestnut, Charles Waddell, 30
Chicago, Ill., 66, 1
19–20, 166, 203–5
Chicago Bulls, 203–4
Chicago Children’s Choir, 203
Chicago Defender, 142–43, 153–54
Children’s Crusade of 1963, 152, 156
Chionesu, Phile, 216
The Chronic (gangsta rap album), 213
Chuck D, 212
Circle for Peace and Foreign Relations, 39
Civilian Conservation Corps, 58–59
Civil Rights Act (1875), 3
Civil Rights Act (1964), 156, 164, 206
Civil Rights Congress (CRC), 133, 137
Civil Rights Division, U.S. Justice Department, 207
Civil rights legislation, and Ronald Reagan, 205, 206–7
Civil rights movement: and black organizations, 6, 145–46; role of black teachers in, 85; emergence of, 103; and Henry Wallace, 126; and NAACP, 127, 138, 162; Jackie Robinson as symbol for, 130–31; and politics of distinction, 133; histories of, 138–39; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 142, 143, 146, 148, 149, 150–51, 153, 154, 155, 158, 159–60, 168, 174; and black radio programs, 143–44; challenge to America, 145; and sit-ins, 146–47; and black musicians, 147, 223; and freedom songs, 149–52, 153, 154, 224; and freedom rides, 150; and black formalism, 151; Martin Luther King Jr.’s leadership of, 152, 154, 156, 157–58, 161, 168; and nonviolent resistance, 155–56, 162–63; federal courts rolling back gains of, 194; and Highlander Folk School, 242n13. See also Montgomery Bus Boycott
Civil War, 2, 114
Claflin University, 75
Clayton, Merry, 191
Cleveland, James, 189
Cleveland, Ohio, 210
Cliff, Jimmy, 177
Clinton, Bill, 215
COINTELPRO, 194, 213
Colbert, Soyica Diggs, 40
Cold War, 124, 127, 130, 133, 220
Cole, Bob, 13
Coleman, Ornette, 177
College of San Mateo, 183
Collins, Addie Mae, 155
Collins, Cardiss, 206
Collins, Sara, 155
Colonialism: in Africa, 27, 60, 92, 112, 123, 136, 142; and color line, 29; James Weldon Johnson on, 30, 35–36; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 85; U.S. foreign policy supporting, 111; black leadership class abandoning international alliances with anticolonialists, 112; and World War II, 117–18; W. E. B. DuBois on, 123; and Pan-African Congresses, 123–24; NAACP’s disengagement from anticolonialism, 127; and black freedom movement, 133; Alphaeus Hunton on, 135–36; and Albert Schweitzer, 142; neocolonialism, 169, 199
Colored American, 15, 21–22
Colored Elks Clubs, 90, 110, 121
Color hierarchy, 14
Color line: stringency of, 14; W. E. B. DuBois’s international view of, 29, 60; sides of, 45; white justifications for, 64; and black political life, 64, 145; contact across, 71; and process of legal segregation in South, 73; and Jackie Robinson, 131; persistence of, 222
Columbia University, 103, 208
Columbus, Christopher, 93
Communist Party: and working-class blacks, 52, 54; and Scottsboro convictions, 57, 235n61; and George Gaines’s parody of “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 57–58; in South, 60; and political coalitions, 61; and black culture, 66; and Paul Robeson, 131–32
Communists: and Popular Front, 54–55, 61; from West Indies, 55; and trade unions, 61, 127; “Lift Every Voice and Sing” associated with, 65; anticommunist politics, 112, 124, 139; and Henry Wallace, 126; blacklisting of, 139; defeat of, 194
Communist Workers Party of America, 55
Community Church of Boston, 60
Community school movement, 182
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, 207
Congressional Black Caucus (CBC), 202–3, 206
Congress of African People, 201
Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers, 86
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 61, 124
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 116, 151, 162–63, 197
Connor, Bull, 126
Convict lease system, 9
Cook, Edna Mae, 85
Cooke, Sam, 223
Coombs, Orde, 184–85
Cooper, Anna Julia, 78
Cornell University, 208
Cosby, Bill, 190
Council for the Economic Development of Black Americans, 207
Council on African Affairs (CAA), 133, 134, 135, 136
Crack cocaine, 213
Craw, Lillian J., 41
Crisis: and “Lift Every Voice and Sing” lyrics published in, 16; W. E. B. DuBois as editor of, 28, 31, 63, 122; circulation of, 29; Langston Hughes’s poetry in, 42–43; Gwendolyn Bennett’s poetry in, 43–44; “Lift Every Voice and Sing” sheet music advertised in, 49–50; Vivian Key’s visual art for, 51–52; and black artistic production, 66; on Dyer Antilynching Bill, 84–85; and Carter G. Woodson, 91; art and poetry prizes of, 124
Crogman, Ada, 40–41
Crogman, William, 40
Cromwell, Adelaide, 179–80
Cuba, 207
Cullen, Countee, 97, 176; One Way to Heaven, 45
Culture wars, 214–15
Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education (1899), 73
Curry, Connie, 174–75
Cyrus, Miley, 221
Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo, 91–92
Daily American, 5
Daily Worker, 57
Dallas Morning News, 118
Dana, Peter, 119
Daniels, Jonathan, 160
Davis, Angela, 173
Davis, Miles, 82
Davis, Ossie, 148
Dawson, Michael, 24, 232n47
Daykin, Walter, 61–63, 65
Debussy, Claude, 60
Dee, Ruby, 148
Delany, Martin, 28
Dellums, Ron, 206
DeLoache, James Ira, “Our New Day Begun,” 161–62
Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, 137, 211
Democracy: pageants focusing on, 40; and black citizenship, 114, 115, 117; Jackie Robinson on, 131–32
Democratic National Convention (2008), 218
Democratic Party: black Americans’ support for, 58, 205–6, 210; convention of 1948, 127–28; and NAACP, 128
Desegregation. See Integration
Detroit, Mich., 88–89
Dett, Nathaniel, 49
Dewey, John, 95–96, 101
Dick Cavett Show (television show), 189–90
Diggs, Charles, 143, 201
Dillard University, 80
Dillet, Stephen, 1
“Dixie,” 186
Dixiecrat Party, 127–28
Dodson, Thurman L., 114
Do the Right Thing (film), 212
Double V campaign, 115, 118, 119, 128
Douglass, Aaron, 51, 175
Douglass, Fannie, 78–79
Douglass, Frederick: narratives of, 6, 45, 47; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing” lyrics, 6–7; “Lift Every Voice and Sing” sung at birthday gatherings honoring, 36, 47; on movement and literacy tied to freedom, 45; Augusta Savage’s sculpture of, 68; and black artistic production, 68, 138, 162; and African American history lessons, 80; images of, 81, 195; and Negro History Week, 91, 96, 114, 147, 195; appeal to Exodusters, 128
Douglass Colored High School, El Paso, 16
Drake, St. Clair, 143
DuBois, W. E. B.: and NAACP, 28, 29, 122–23, 126, 129; as Crisis editor, 28, 31, 63, 122; and Marcus Garvey, 28–29; and Pan-African Congresses, 31–32, 39, 51, 123, 124, 233n21; and James Weldon Johnson, 38; on “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 38; and Star of Ethiopia pageant, 39–40; on black life “behind the veil,” 44, 87, 198, 230n14; The Souls of Black Folk, 44, 189; and African Blood Brotherhood, 55; and socialism, 60; Symphony Hall address of 1936, 60; Thomas Gilbert Standing on, 63, 64; and Anne Spencer, 65, 66; Margaret Savage’s bust of, 68; on classical education, 74; membership in NATCS, 74; on funding for black schools, 76; portraits of, 81; role in development of black children, 86; on double consciousness, 86–87, 121; on Negro History Week, 91; on school dese
gregation, 103; on Americans All series, 112–13; as Phylon editor, 121, 122; Black Reconstruction, 122; and leftist politics, 122, 124, 130; Color and Democracy, 123; The World and Africa, 123; and SNYC, 125; and Henry Wallace, 126; “Behold the Land,” 128–29; on South, 128–29; “Criteria of Negro Art,” 138; death of, 155
Dumas, Alexandre, 97, 195
Dunbar, Paul Laurence: and black formalism, 10, 12, 113, 198–99; “Sympathy,” 43, 167; schools named after, 78, 91; and Negro History Week, 91, 96, 195; and Periclean Club program, 145
Dunbar Chorus, 145
Dunbar High School, Washington, D.C., 32, 78–80, 100, 101, 179–80
Dunbar School, Tucson, Ariz., 178–79
Dunham, Katherine, 66
DuSable Museum of African American History, Chicago, 204
Dyer Antilynching Bill, 84–85
East Africa, 143
East St. Louis riots, 33–34
Ebert, Roger, 191
Ebony, 192, 229n1
Ebony Jr. magazine, xi, 229n1
Economic conditions: blacks as exploited workers, 2, 27, 161, 169; and leftist politics, 60; resistance to criticism of, 112, 120; and NAACP, 122; and SNYC activism, 124; and employment and income gaps between blacks and whites, 144, 206, 214; Martin Luther King Jr. on, 169; economic crisis of 2008 and 2009, 219; protests against, 225
Edwards, Mildred Johnson, 99–100, 106
Edwards, William J., 77
Edwin McMasters Stanton School, Jacksonville, Florida, 3
Egypt, 39, 40, 97
Einstein, Albert, 68
Elisabeth Irwin School, New York, 54
Ellington, Duke, 177, 187–88
Ellison, Ralph, 9–11
Emancipation, process of, 41
Emancipation Day, 15–16, 36, 37, 89, 111, 141, 205
Emancipation Proclamation, 15, 153, 188
Employment: blacks as exploited workers, 2, 27, 161, 169; agricultural labor during Jim Crow, 8; of black women, 68; and NAACP, 122; and gaps between blacks and whites, 206, 214
Enloe Drug Store, 154
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 207
Essence, 192
Ethiopia, 39, 40, 60, 97
“Ethiopia, Land of Our Fathers,” 32, 33, 34
Ethnic studies programs, 194
Europe, James, 79
Europe, Mary, 79
European cultural forms, 10, 11, 12, 16