by Brian Greene
The recession speed of a supernova depends on the difference between the gravitational pull of ordinary matter and the gravitational push of the "dark energy" supplied by the cosmological constant. Taking the amount of matter, both visible and dark, to be about 30 percent of the critical density, the supernova researchers concluded that the accelerated expansion they had observed required an outward push of a cosmological constant whose dark energy contributes about 70 percent of the critical density.
This is a remarkable number. If it's correct, then not only does ordinary matter—protons, neutrons, electrons—constitute a paltry 5 percent of the mass/energy of the universe, and not only does some currently unidentified form of dark matter constitute at least five times that amount, but also the majority of the mass/energy in the universe is contributed by a totally different and rather mysterious form of dark energy that is spread throughout space. If these ideas are right, they dramatically extend the Copernican revolution: not only are we not the center of the universe, but the stuff of which we're made is like flotsam on the cosmic ocean. If protons, neutrons, and electrons had been left out of the grand design, the total mass/energy of the universe would hardly have been diminished.
But there is a second, equally important reason why 70 percent is a remarkable number. A cosmological constant that contributes 70 percent of the critical density would, together with the 30 percent coming from ordinary matter and dark matter, bring the total mass/energy of the universe right up to the full 100 percent predicted by inflationary cosmology! Thus, the outward push demonstrated by the supernova data can be explained by just the right amount of dark energy to account for the unseen 70 percent of the universe that inflationary cosmologists had been scratching their heads over. The supernova measurements and inflationary cosmology are wonderfully complementary. They confirm each other. Each provides a corroborating second opinion for the other. 24
Combining the observational results of supernovae with the theoretical insights of inflation, we thus arrive at the following sketch of cosmic evolution, summarized in Figure 10.6. Early on, the energy of the universe was carried by the inflaton field, which was perched away from its minimum energy state. Because of its negative pressure, the inflaton field drove an enormous burst of inflationary expansion. Then, some 10 -35 seconds later, as the inflaton field slid down its potential energy bowl, the burst of expansion drew to a close and the inflaton released its pent-up energy to the production of ordinary matter and radiation. For many billions of years, these familiar constituents of the universe exerted an ordinary attractive gravitational pull that slowed the spatial expansion. But as the universe grew and thinned out, the gravitational pull diminished. About 7 billion years ago, ordinary gravitational attraction became weak enough for the gravitational repulsion of the universe's cosmological constant to become dominant, and since then the rate of spatial expansion has been continually increasing.
About 100 billion years from now, all but the closest of galaxies will be dragged away by the swelling space at faster-than-light speed and so would be impossible for us to see, regardless of the power of telescopes used. If these ideas are right, then in the far future the universe will be a vast, empty, and lonely place.
Figure 10.6 A time line of cosmic evolution. ( a ) Inflationary burst. ( b ) Standard Big Bang evolution. ( c ) Era of accelerated expansion.
Puzzles and Progress
With these discoveries, it thus seemed manifest that the pieces of the cosmological puzzle were falling into place. Questions left unanswered by the standard big bang theory—What ignited the outward swelling of space? Why is the temperature of the microwave background radiation so uniform? Why does space seem to have a flat shape?—were addressed by the inflationary theory. Even so, thorny issues regarding fundamental origins have continued to mount: Was there an era before the inflationary burst, and if so, what was it like? What introduced an inflaton field displaced from its lowest-energy configuration to initiate the inflationary expansion? And, the newest question of all, why is the universe apparently composed of such a mishmash of ingredients—5 percent familiar matter, 25 percent dark matter, 70 percent dark energy? Despite the immensely pleasing fact that this cosmic recipe agrees with inflation's prediction that the universe should have 100 percent of the critical density, and although it simultaneously explains the accelerated expansion found by supernova studies, many physicists view the hodgepodge composition as distinctly unattractive. Why, many have asked, has the universe's composition turned out to be so complicated? Why are there a handful of disparate ingredients in such seemingly random abundances? Is there some sensible underlying plan that theoretical studies have yet to reveal?
No one has advanced any convincing answers to these questions; they are among the pressing research problems driving current cosmological research and they serve to remind us of the many tangled knots we must still unravel before we can claim to have fully understood the birth of the universe. But despite the significant challenges that remain, inflation is far and away the front-running cosmological theory. To be sure, physicists' belief in inflation is grounded in the achievements we've so far discussed. But the confidence in inflationary cosmology has roots that run deeper still. As we'll see in the next chapter, a number of other considerations— coming from both observational and theoretical discoveries—have convinced many physicists who work in the field that the inflationary framework is our generation's most important and most lasting contribution to cosmological science.
11 - Quanta in the Sky with Diamonds
INFLATION, QUANTUM JITTERS, AND THE ARROW OF TIME
The discovery of the inflationary framework launched a new era in cosmological research, and in the decades since, many thousands of papers have been written on the subject. Scientists have explored just about every nook and cranny of the theory you could possibly imagine. While many of these works have focused on details of technical importance, others have gone further and shown how inflation not only solves specific cosmological problems beyond the reach of the standard big bang, but also provides powerful new approaches to a number of age-old questions. Of these, there are three developments—having to do with the formation of clumpy structures such as galaxies; the amount of energy required to spawn the universe we see; and (of prime importance to our story) the origin of time's arrow—on which inflation has ushered in substantial and, some would say, spectacular progress.
Let's take a look.
Quantum Skywriting
Inflationary cosmology's solution to the horizon and flatness problems was its initial claim to fame, and rightly so. As we've seen, these were major accomplishments. But in the years since, many physicists have come to believe that another of inflation's achievements shares the top spot on the list of the theory's most important contributions.
The lauded insight concerns an issue that, to this point, I have encouraged you not to think about: How is it that there are galaxies, stars, planets, and other clumpy things in the universe? In the last three chapters, I asked you to focus on astronomically large scales—scales on which the universe appears homogeneous, scales so large that entire galaxies can be thought of as single H 2 O molecules, while the universe itself is the whole, uniform glass of water. But sooner or later cosmology has to come to grips with the fact that when you examine the cosmos on "finer" scales you discover clumpy structures such as galaxies. And here, once again, we are faced with a puzzle.
If the universe is indeed smooth, uniform, and homogeneous on large scales—features that are supported by observation and that lie at the heart of all cosmological analyses—where could the smaller-scale lumpiness have come from? The staunch believer in standard big bang cosmology can, once again, shrug off this question by appealing to highly favorable and mysteriously tuned conditions in the early universe: "Near the very beginning," such a believer can say, "things were, by and large, smooth and uniform, but not perfectly uniform. How conditions got that way, I can't say. That's just how it was bac
k then. Over time, this tiny lumpiness grew, since a lump has greater gravitational pull, being denser than its surroundings, and therefore grabs hold of more nearby material, growing larger still. Ultimately, the lumps got big enough to form stars and galaxies." This would be a convincing story were it not for two deficiencies: the utter lack of an explanation for either the initial overall homogeneity or these important tiny nonuniformities. That's where inflationary cosmology provides gratifying progress. We've already seen that inflation offers an explanation for the large-scale uniformity, and as we'll now learn, the explanatory power of the theory goes even further. According to inflationary cosmology, the initial nonuniformity that ultimately resulted in the formation of stars and galaxies came from quantum mechanics.
This magnificent idea arises from an interplay between two seemingly disparate areas of physics: the inflationary expansion of space and the quantum uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principle tells us that there are always trade-offs in how sharply various complementary physical features in the cosmos can be determined. The most familiar example (see Chapter 4) involves matter: the more precisely the position of a particle is determined, the less precisely its velocity can be determined. But the uncertainty principle also applies to fields. By essentially the same reasoning we used in its application to particles, the uncertainty principle implies that the more precisely the value of a field is determined at one location in space, the less precisely its rate of change at that location can be determined. (The position of a particle and the rate of change of its position—its velocity—play analogous roles in quantum mechanics to the value of a field and the rate of change of the field value, at a given location in space.)
I like to summarize the uncertainty principle by saying, roughly speaking, that quantum mechanics makes things jittery and turbulent. If the velocity of a particle can't be delineated with total precision, we also can't delineate where the particle will be located even a fraction of a second later, since velocity now determines position then. In a sense, the particle is free to take on this or that velocity, or more precisely, to assume a mixture of many different velocities, and hence it will jitter frantically, haphazardly going this way and that. For fields, the situation is similar. If a field's rate of change can't be delineated with total precision, then we also can't delineate what the value of the field will be, at any location, even a moment later. In a sense, the field will undulate up or down at this or that speed, or, more precisely, it will assume a strange mixture of many different rates of change, and hence its value will undergo a frenzied, fuzzy, random jitter.
In daily life we aren't directly aware of the jitters, either for particles or fields, because they take place on subatomic scales. But that's where inflation makes a big impact. The sudden burst of inflationary expansion stretched space by such an enormous factor that what initially inhabited the microscopic was drawn out to the macroscopic. As a key example, pioneers 1 of inflationary cosmology realized that random differences between the quantum jitters in one spatial location and another would have generated slight inhomogeneities in the microscopic realm; because of the indiscriminate quantum agitation, the amount of energy in one location would have been a bit different from what it was in another. Then, through the subsequent inflationary swelling of space, these tiny variations would have been stretched to scales far larger than the quantum domain, yielding a small amount of lumpiness, much as tiny wiggles drawn on a balloon with a Magic Marker are stretched clear across the balloon's surface when you blow it up. This, physicists believe, is the origin of the lumpiness that the staunch believer in the standard big bang model simply declares, without justification, to be "how it was back then." Through the enormous stretching of inevitable quantum fluctuations, inflationary cosmology provides an explanation: inflationary expansion stretches tiny, inhomogeneous quantum jitters and smears them clear across the sky.
Over the few billion years following the end of the brief inflationary phase, these tiny lumps continued to grow through gravitational clumping. Just as in the standard big bang picture, lumps have slightly higher gravitational pull than their surroundings, so they draw in nearby material, growing larger still. In time, the lumps grew large enough to yield the matter making up galaxies and the stars that inhabit them. Certainly, there are numerous steps of detail in going from a little lump to a galaxy, and many still need elucidation. But the overall framework is clear: in a quantum world, nothing is ever perfectly uniform because of the jitteriness inherent to the uncertainty principle. And, in a quantum world that experienced inflationary expansion, such nonuniformity can be stretched from the microworld to far larger scales, providing the seeds for the formation of large astrophysical bodies like galaxies.
That's the basic idea, so feel free to skip over the next paragraph. But for those who are interested, I'd like to make the discussion a bit more precise. Recall that inflationary expansion came to an end when the inflaton field's value slid down its potential energy bowl and the field relinquished all its pent-up energy and negative pressure. We described this as happening uniformly throughout space—the inflaton value here, there, and everywhere experienced the same evolution—as that's what naturally emerges from the governing equations. However, this is strictly true only if we ignore the effects of quantum mechanics. On average, the inflaton field value did indeed slide down the bowl, as we expect from thinking about a simple classical object like a marble rolling down an incline. But just as a frog sliding down the bowl is likely to jump and jiggle along the way, quantum mechanics tells us that the inflaton field experienced quivers and jitters. On its way down, the value may have suddenly jumped up a little bit over there or jiggled down a little bit over there. And because of this jittering, the inflaton reached the value of lowest energy at different places at slightly different moments. In turn, inflationary expansion shut off at slightly different times at different locations in space, so that the amount of spatial expansion at different locations varied slightly, giving rise to inhomogeneities—wrinkles—similar to the kind you see when the pizza maker stretches the dough a bit more in one place than another and creates a little bump. Now the normal intuition is that jitters arising from quantum mechanics would be too small to be relevant on astrophysical scales. But with inflation, space expanded at such a colossal rate, doubling in size every 10 -37 seconds, that even a slightly different duration of inflation at nearby locations resulted in a significant wrinkle. In fact, calculations undertaken in specific realizations of inflation have shown that the inhomogeneities produced in this way have a tendency to be too large; researchers often have to adjust details in a given inflationary model (the precise shape of the inflaton field's potential energy bowl) to ensure that the quantum jitters don't predict a universe that's too lumpy. And so inflationary cosmology supplies a ready-made mechanism for understanding how the small-scale nonuniformity responsible for lumpy structures like stars and galaxies emerged in a universe that on the largest of scales appears thoroughly homogeneous.
According to inflation, the more than 100 billion galaxies, sparkling throughout space like heavenly diamonds, are nothing but quantum mechanics writ large across the sky. To me, this realization is one of the greatest wonders of the modern scientific age.
The Golden Age of Cosmology
Dramatic evidence supporting these ideas comes from meticulous satellite-based observations of the microwave background radiation's temperature. I have emphasized a number of times that the temperature of the radiation in one part of the sky agrees with that in another to high accuracy. But what I have yet to mention is that by the fourth digit after the decimal place, the temperatures in different locations do differ. Precision measurements, first accomplished in 1992 by COBE (the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite) and more recently by WMAP (the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe), have determined that while the temperature might be 2.7249 Kelvin in one spot in space, it might be 2.7250 Kelvin in another, and 2.7251 Kelvin in still another.
; The wonderful thing is that these extraordinarily small temperature variations follow a pattern on the sky that can be explained by attributing them to the same mechanism that has been suggested for seeding galaxy formation: quantum fluctuations stretched out by inflation. The rough idea is that when tiny quantum jitters are smeared across space, they make it slightly hotter in one region and slightly cooler in another (photons received from a slightly denser region expend more energy overcoming the slightly stronger gravitational field, and hence their energy and temperature are slightly lower than those of photons received from a less dense
Figure 11.1 ( a ) Inflationary cosmology's prediction for temperature variations of the microwave background radiation from one point to another on the sky. ( b ) Comparison of those predictions with satellite-based observations.
region). Physicists have carried out precise calculations based on this proposal, and generated predictions for how the microwave radiation's temperature should vary from place to place across the sky, as illustrated in Figure 11.1a. (The details are not essential, but the horizontal axis is related to the angular separation of two points on the sky, and the vertical axis is related to their temperature difference.) In Figure 11.1b, these predictions are compared with satellite observations, represented by little diamonds, and as you can see there is extraordinary agreement.
I hope you're blown away by this concordance of theory and observation, because if not it means I've failed to convey the full wonder of the result. So, just in case, let me reemphasize what's going on here: satellite-borne telescopes have recently measured the temperature of microwave photons that have been traveling toward us, unimpeded, for nearly 14 billion years. They've found that photons arriving from different directions in space have nearly identical temperatures, differing by no more than a few ten-thousandths of a degree. Moreover, the observations have shown that these tiny temperature differences fill out a particular pattern on the sky, demonstrated by the orderly progression of diamonds in Figure 11.1b. And marvel of marvels, calculations done today, using the inflationary framework, are able to explain the pattern of these minuscule temperature variations—variations set down nearly 14 billion years ago—and, to top it off, the key to this explanation involves jitters arising from quantum uncertainty. Wow.