47 Meredith, The State of Africa, p. 588; Wright, Lawrence, The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda’s Road to 9/11, London, 2006, p. 164.
48 Ibid., pp. 166–8.
49 Ibid., pp. 214, 220.
50 Flint, Julie, and de Waal, Alex, Darfur: A Short History of a Long War, London, 2005, p. 13.
51 Daly, Darfur’s Sorrow, pp. 273, 314.
52 Ibid., p. 3.
53 Time, ‘The Tragedy of Sudan’, 4 October 2004.
54 Time, ‘Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bahir’, 5 March 2009.
55 Quoted in Jackson, H. C., Sudan Days and Ways, London, 1954, p. 249.
56 O’Ballance, The Secret War, p. 151.
57 Eprile, War and Peace in the Sudan, p. 17.
58 TNA, FO 633/86, ‘The Reconquest of Sudan, October, 1895–September, 1898’, pp. 5–6.
Chapter 14: Indirect Rule
1 Schwarz, Frederick A. O., Jr, Nigeria: The Tribes, the Nation, or the Race, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965, p. 20n.
2 DNB.
3 Myer, Valerie Grosvenor, A Victorian Lady in Africa: The Story of Mary Kingsley, Southampton, 1989, p. vii.
4 Ibid., p. 1.
5 Kingsley, Mary, ‘Imperialism: A Lecture Delivered in Liverpool’, in West African Studies, 2nd edn, London, 1901, pp. 416–18.
6 Kingsley, Mary, The Story of West Africa, London, 1899, pp. 153–4.
7 Shaw, Flora, A Tropical Dependency: An Outline of the Ancient History of Western Soudan with an Account of the Modern Settlement of Northern Nigeria, London, 1905, pp. 364–5.
8 Wellesley, Dorothy, Sir George Goldie, Founder of Nigeria: A Memoir, London, 1934, pp. vii–viii.
9 Ibid., p. 93.
10 Flint, John E., Sir George Goldie and the Making of Nigeria, London, 1960, p. 4.
11 Wellesley, Goldie, p. 94; Flint, Goldie, p. 5.
12 DNB; Flint, Goldie, p. 5.
13 DNB.
14 Robinson, Gallagher, with Alice Denny, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism, 2nd edn, London, 1981, p. 395.
15 Vandeleur, Seymour, Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger, London, 1898, p. 263.
16 Ibid., p. xxvii.
17 TNA, FO 403/75, correspondence respecting the Royal Niger Company, Part I, 1885–1886, p. 36b, letter dated 8 November 1886 from George Goldie to the Earl of Iddesleigh.
18 TNA, FCO 403/75, Royal Niger Company correspondence, pp. 64–8, letter from company to Sir J. Pauncefote, 20 December 1886.
19 Ibid.
20 TNA, FCO 403/76, correspondence respecting the Royal Niger Company, Part II, 1888, pp. 12–13, letter from German Embassy, 27 January 1888; ibid., p. 56, letter from George Goldie to the Foreign Office, 21 February 1888.
21 Ibid., p. 115, letter from Goldie to the Foreign Office, 1 May 1888.
22 Ibid., p. 167, extract from North German Gazette, 18 July 1888.
23 TNA, FO 403/75, correspondence respecting the Royal Niger Company, Part I, 1885–1886, pp. 90–3, letter from Messrs Stuart and Douglas to W. F. Lawrence MP, 15 December 1886.
24 Ibid., p. 112, letter from W. F. Lawrence to the Foreign Office, 15 December 1886; letter from the Foreign Office to W. F. Lawrence, 27 January 1887.
25 TNA, FO 403/149, correspondence respecting the Royal Niger Company, Part IV, 1890, p. 8, letter from the Duke of Westminster to the Marquess of Salisbury, 9 January 1890.
26 Wellesley, Goldie, pp. 23, 31–4, 25.
27 Ibid., p. 113; Flint, Goldie, pp. 311, 319.
28 Cecil, Lady Gwendolen, Life of Robert, Marquis of Salisbury, vol. IV, London, 1933, p. 323.
29 Achebe, Chinua, Things Fall Apart, Penguin edn, London, 2006, p. 8.
30 Ibid., pp. 130–1.
31 Ibid., p. 197.
32 Robinson, C. N., Nigeria: Our Latest Protectorate, London, 1900, p. 105.
33 Ibid., p. 106.
34 Schwarz, Nigeria, p. 35.
35 Kingsley, The Story of West Africa, p. 182.
36 TNA, FO 403/217, p. 4, Sir John Kirke to the Marquess of Salisbury, 25 August 1895.
37 Perham, Margery, Lugard: The Years of Adventure, vol. I: 1858–1898, London, 1956, pp. 5–6; DNB.
38 Perham, Margery, Lugard: The Years of Authority, vol. II: 1898–1945, London, 1956, p. 139.
39 Ibid., p. 136.
40 Lugard, Lord, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, London, 1965 (with an introduction by Margery Perham), 1st edn, London, 1922, p. 617.
41 Lord Salisbury in House of Lords debate, 14 February 1895, quoted in ibid., p. 612.
42 Ibid.
43 Lugard, Lord, The Dependencies of the British Empire and the Responsibilities They Involve, Address on the Occasion of the 105th Anniversary of the Foundation of Birkbeck College, London, 1928, pp. 4–5.
44 Ibid., pp. 8–10.
45 Ibid., pp. 10, 16.
46 Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 199.
47 Gervis, Pearce, Of Emirs and Pagans: A View of Northern Nigeria, London, 1963, p. xiii.
48 Dudley, B. J., Parties and Politics in Northern Nigeria, London, 1968, p. 16.
49 TNA, CO 822/27/16, Lugard, ‘Education in Tropical Africa’, originally published in the Edinburgh Review in July 1925, pp. 2–9.
50 Ibid., p. 10.
51 Ibid., pp. 10, 13.
52 Ibid., p. 11.
53 TNA, FCO 51/125, Miss V. Ryan, ‘A Study of Events in Nigeria 1954–1969’, 28 November 1969, p. 9.
54 Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 223.
55 Gervis, Of Emirs and Pagans, p. 36.
56 TNA, CO 879/119/8, Lugard, Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and Administration, 1912–1919.
57 Ibid., p. 12.
58 Perham, Margery, Native Administration in Nigeria, London, 1937, p. 89.
59 TNA, CO 583/201/10, letter of J. A. Maykin to Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 28 December 1934.
60 Ibid., letter from A. E. F. Murray to the Under-Secretary of State at the Colonial Office, 11 February 1935; ibid., letter from Alake of Abeokuta to Sir Philip Cunliffe-Lister, 4 February 1935.
61 Ibid., memorandum by I. M. R. Maclennan, 7 March 1935.
62 Ibid., memorandum by A. Fiddian, 2 February 1935.
63 Ibid., memorandum by I. M. R. Maclennan, 17 March 1936.
64 Perham, Native Administration, p. 81.
65 Ibid., pp. 231, 241.
Chapter 15: Yellow Sun
1 TNA, CO 967/117, Semi-official and Personal Correspondence between Secretary of State and Governors, letter from Lord Moyne to Sir Bernard Bourdillon, 2 October 1941.
2 Ibid., letter to Lord Lloyd, 5 October 1940.
3 TNA, CO 583/255/8, letter from Oliver Stanley to the Permanent Under-Secretary of State, 31 January 1944; letter to A. Cohen, 8 January 1944.
4 Gervis, Pearce, Of Emirs and Pagans: A View of Northern Nigeria, London, 1963, pp. 64–5.
5 Bello, Sir Ahmadu, My Life, Cambridge, 1962, pp. 29–31.
6 Ibid., pp. 31, 35, 64.
7 Ibid., pp. 229, 232.
8 TNA, FCO 51/125, ‘Nigeria, 1954–1969’, p. 13.
9 Ibid., pp. 16–17.
10 TNA, FCO 51/125, p. 6.
11 Time, ‘The Sardauna’, 25 May 1959.
12 Ibid.
13 Meredith, Martin, The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence, London, 2005, p. 194.
14 TNA, FCO 51/125, p. 31; Meredith, The State of Africa, p. 194.
15 Meredith, The State of Africa, p. 194.
16 Ibid., p. 197.
17 Forsyth, Frederick, The Biafra Story, London, 1969, p. 27.
18 TNA, FCO 51/125, p. 38.
19 Morel, E. D., Nigeria and its Peoples and its Problems, London, 1912, p. 186.
20 Schwarz, Frederick A. O., Jr, Nigeria: The Tribes, the Nation, or the Race, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1965, p. 115.
21 Paden, John N., Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto: Values and Leadership in Nigeria, London, 1986, pp. 656–7.
22 Tim
e, ‘The Men of Sandhurst’, 28 January 1966.
23 TNA, FCO 51/125, p. 52; Meredith, The State of Africa, p. 199.
24 Time, ‘Men of Sandhurst’.
25 Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert, The Biafra War: Nigeria and the Aftermath, Lampeter, 1990, p. 48.
26 Ibid., p. 28.
27 TNA, FCO 51/125, letter from David Hunt to E. E. Orchard, 6 November 1970.
28 Schwarz, Nigeria, p. 1.
29 TNA, FCO 25/232, ‘The Secession of Eastern Region’, letter from the British High Commissioner to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 23 March 1967.
30 Forsyth, The Biafra Story, p. 68.
31 Time, ‘Agony in Biafra’, 2 August 1968.
32 TNA, FCO 25/232, letter from the High Commissioner in Lagos to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 9 June 1967.
33 Ibid., letter from the High Commissioner to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 23 March 1967.
34 Ibid., letter from Colonel Ojukwu to Harold Wilson, 16 March 1967.
35 Ibid., telegram from Lagos to the Commonwealth Office, 14 April 1967.
36 Ibid., letter from the High Commissioner to E. G. Norris at the Commonwealth Office, 15 April 1967.
37 Ibid., ‘Paper on Eastern Nationalism’ by D. F. Hawley at the British High Commission in Lagos, 15 April 1967.
38 Ibid., memorandum by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 8 May 1967.
39 Ibid.
40 TNA, FCO 51/125, P. W. Heap, comment on draft of ‘Nigeria 1954–1970’, 14 August 1970.
41 Ibid., ‘Nigeria, 1954–1970’, p. 87.
42 TNA, FCO 25/232, letter from Colonel Ojukwu to Harold Wilson, 30 May 1967.
43 TNA, FCO 51/125, letter from David Hunt to E. E. Orchard, 6 November 1970.
44 Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, Half of a Yellow Sun, London, 2007.
45 TNA, FCO 51/125, ‘Nigeria 1954–1970’, p. 88.
46 Forsyth, The Biafra Story, p. xi.
47 TNA, PREM 11/3048, ‘Mr Macleod statement in the House of Commons relating to the talks in London held from 10 May to 19 May, 1960, to discuss Nigerian independence and membership of the Commonwealth’.
48 TNA, FCO 51/125, ‘Nigeria 1954–1970’, p. 86.
49 TNA, FCO 25/232, letter from David Hunt to George Thomson, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 19 January 1968.
50 Ibid., note by J. R. Young, 31 January 1968.
51 TNA, FCO 38/211, ‘French Arms Supplies to Nigeria’.
52 TNA, FCO 25/232, letter from Donald Tebbit to Martin Le Quesne, 24 November 1967; letter from Le Quesne to Tebbit, 4 January 1968.
53 Ibid., letter from the Holy See to the Foreign Office, 10 October 1967; letter from R. B. Bone to the Foreign Office, 7 June 1968.
54 Forsyth, The Biafra Story, p. 65; The Times, ‘Mad Mike Hoare’, 1 December 1967.
55 TNA, FCO 65/1194, Richard Parsons, ‘General Comments on Political Situation in Nigeria’, 4 July 1972.
56 TNA, FCO 65/735, ‘Position of Ibo after end of Civil War in Nigeria’, newspaper cuttings in telegram from Sir Leslie Glass, High Commissioner in Lagos, to the Foreign Office, 14 January 1970; newspaper cuttings in telegram from Sir Leslie Glass, 17 January 1970.
57 TNA, FCO 65/735, ‘Position of Ibo after end of civil war in Nigeria’, telegram from Lagos to the Foreign Office, 15 January 1970.
58 TNA, FCO 65/1362, ‘Position of Former Rebel Leader of Biafra, Colonel C. O. Ojukwu’, letter from A. A. Acland, Foreign Office, to G. L. Angel, Home Office, 12 January 1973.
59 TNA, FCO 65/1363, letter from M. H. G. Rogers, Deputy High Commissioner, to J. de Courcy Ling, 12 January 1973.
60 TNA, FCO 65/1920, ‘Tribalism in Nigeria’, 21 October 1977.
61 Meredith, The State of Africa, pp. 580–1.
62 Langley, Alison, ‘Court allows access to ex-leader’s files’, New York Times, 2 May 2003; New York Times, ‘Late Nigerian dictator looted nearly $500 million, Swiss say’, 19 August 2004.
63 Polgreen, Lydia, ‘Money and violence hobble democracy in Nigeria’, New York Times, 24 November 2006.
64 Meredith, The State of Africa, p. 582.
65 New York Times, ‘Hundreds flee Nigerian city swept by riots’, 25 November 2002.
66 Maier, Karl, This House Has Fallen, London, 2001, pp. 271–3.
67 Ibid., p. 287.
68 TNA, FCO 25/232, letter from David Hunt to George Thomson, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs, 19 January 1968.
69 TNA, FCO 65/1194, Richard Parsons, ‘General Comments on Political Situation in Nigeria’, 4 July 1972; ibid., Richard Parsons, ‘Valedictory Remarks’, 30 June 1972.
Chapter 16: Hierarchies
1 Beeching, Jack, The Chinese Opium Wars, London, 1975, p. 39.
2 Matheson, James, Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China, London, 1836, p. 1.
3 Ibid., pp. 56, 39, 61.
4 Memorials to his Majesties Government soliciting Protection to the British Trade in China, from the Merchants of Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Canton, London, 1836, p. 121.
5 Lindsay, H. Hamilton, Letter to the Rt. Hon. Viscount Palmerston, London, 1836, pp. 18–19.
6 DNB.
7 Palmerston letter to Lord Auckland, dated January 1841, quoted in Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars, p. 95.
8 Fairbank, J. K., ‘Chinese Diplomacy and the Treaty of Nanking, 1842’, Journal of Modern History, March 1940, vol. XII, no. 1, pp. 1–30, at p. 6.
9 Costin, W. C., Great Britain and China, 1833–1860, Oxford, 1937, p. 11.
10 Lindsay, Letter to Viscount Palmerston, p. 12.
11 Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars, pp. 96–8; DNB.
12 Eitel, E. J., Europe in China, London, 1895, pp. 60, 156.
13 Morris, Jan, Hong Kong, London, 1997, p. 56.
14 Ibid., p. 52; Tsang, Steve, A Modern History of Hong Kong, London, 2004, p. 53.
15 Morris, Hong Kong, p. 85; Crisswell, Colin N., The Taipans: Merchant Princes, Hong Kong, 1981, p. 5.
16 Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong, p. 27.
17 Ibid.
18 Tsang, Steve, Governing Hong Kong: Administrative Officers from the Nineteenth Century to the Handover to China, 1862–1997, London, 2007, pp. 27, 30–1.
19 Lethbridge, H. J., ‘Hong Cadets 1862–1941’, in Lethbridge, H. J., Hong Kong, London, 1978, pp. 37, 43.
20 Ibid., p. 50.
21 Tsang, Governing Hong Kong, p. 170.
22 Morris, Hong Kong, p. 88.
23 DNB.
24 Pope-Hennessy, James, Half-Crown Colony: A Hong Kong Notebook, London, 1969, pp. 78–9.
25 Eitel, Europe in China, p. v.
26 Carroll, J. M., Edge of Empires: Chinese Elites and British Colonials in Hong Kong, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2005, pp. 87–8.
27 Crisswell, Taipans, p. 137.
28 Los Angeles Times, ‘A Family’s Priceless Legacy’, 15 June 1997; Carroll, Edge of Empires, p. 79.
29 Carroll, Edge of Empires, pp. 100–1.
30 Ibid., p. 95.
31 TNA, CO 448/34, letter from Sir Robert Ho Tung to Sir Ronald Waterhouse KCB, 12 January 1927.
32 Ibid., letter from Sir Ronald Waterhouse to J. A. P. Edgcumbe, 8 February 1927; letter from E. H. Howell to Sir Gilbert Grindle, 21 October 1927; note by G. Grindle, 10 February 1927.
33 Maugham, W. Somerset, The Painted Veil, London, 1925, new edn 2001.
34 Gillingham, Paul, At the Peak: Hong Kong between the Wars, Hong Kong, 1983, pp. 23–8.
35 Carroll, Edge of Empires, pp. 132–4.
36 Gillingham, At the Peak, p. 79.
37 Ibid., p. 28.
38 Ibid., pp. 45–6.
39 TNA, CO 129/555/10, letter from W. J. Southorn to H. R. Cowell, 3 January 1936.
40 TNA, CO 129/533/10, note on the legal and practical position of brothels in Hong Kong by Chief Justice Sir Joseph Kemp, 16 May 1931; letter from Clementi to Wilson, 19 September 1931. This letter was written when Clementi ha
d moved to Singapore.
41 TNA, CO 850/63/20, letter from the Governor to Philip Cunliffe-Lister, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 3 May 1935.
42 Ibid.
Chapter 17: Democracy Postponed
1 Quoted in Blake, Robert, Jardine Matheson: Traders of the Far East, London, 1999, p. 240.
2 TNA, CO 129/592/8, ‘Future Policy in Hong Kong’, telegram from Washington to London, 26 August 1945.
3 Ibid., letter from the China Association to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 4 April 1945.
4 TNA, CO 968/98/6, ‘Treatment of Sir Mark Young as a Prisoner of War in Japanese Hands’, letter from Sir Mark Young to the Colonial Office, 12 December 1945.
5 TNA, CO 527/1651, ‘1946 Reforms’, letter from Hazlerigg to the Colonial Office, 18 November 1946.
6 DNB.
7 TNA, CO 527/1651, ‘1946 Reforms’, letter from Sir Mark Young to Arthur Creech Jones, Secretary of State for the Colonies, 22 October 1946.
8 TNA, CO 1023/41, ‘Constitutional Reforms’, Far Eastern Economic Review, ‘Constitutional Reform in Hong Kong’, 4 September 1952.
9 Grantham, A., Via Ports: From Hong Kong to Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 1965, pp. 111, 105.
10 TNA, CO 1023/41, extract from Far Eastern Economic Review, ‘Speech by Mr Percy Chen’, 6 November 1952.
11 Ibid., letter from J. B. Sidebottom to C. H. Johnston, 19 March 1952; telegram from Hong Kong (A. Grantham) to the Colonial Office, 26 June 1952; Cabinet memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, ‘Constitutional Reform in Hong Kong’, [n.d.] September 1952.
12 Ibid., The Times, 16 October 1953; China Mail, 16 October 1953.
13 Ibid., South China Morning Post, 16 October 1953.
14 Ibid., Cassidy, P.S., ‘Asian Affairs’, 31 July 1953.
15 Ibid., explanatory note by J. B. Johnston, 14 November 1953; telegram from Oliver Lyttelton, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to Alexander Grantham, 11 December 1953.
16 Grantham, Via Ports, pp. 107, 112.
17 Details of the entire Douthwaite–Dalton case are found in TNA, CO 1023/227, ‘Trial of British Soldiers: Douthwaite and Dalton in Hong Kong’.
18 TNA, CO 1023/41, P. S. Cassidy, ‘Asian Affairs’, 31 July 1952.
19 TNA, CO 1030/899, ‘The Drug Problem in Hong Kong 1957–59’; broadcast appeal by P. C. M. Sedgwick, 12 November 1959.
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