East India Company
economy of
exports to Europe
farming in
financial markets in
improved relations between U.S. and
Ireland and
Irish uprising against
Java and
Napoléon and
Parliament
Poor Employment Act
rain in
reform clubs in
relief efforts in
resumption of trade between Continent and
riots and protests in
taxes in
textile manufacturing in
unemployment in
War of 1812
Great Comet of 1811
Great Lakes
ice in
Greece
Greenland
Gresik
Gulf of Mexico
Gunong Gede
Hadley, George
hail
Hall, Frederick
Halley, Edmund
Hallowell American Advocate
Hamilton, Alexander
Harper’s
Harwood, Benjamin
Hastings, Lord
Hatcher, Harlan
Hawthorne, Nathaniel
Henry, Joseph
Henry III, King
Hereford Journal
Herschel, Frederick William
Hobhouse, John
Holyoke, Edward Augustus
Hone, William
horses
Huaynaputina
Hugo, Victor
Humphreys, William
Hungary
Hunt, Henry
Hunt, Leigh
Huskisson, William
hygrometers
ice
in Great Lakes
in North Atlantic
ice ages
Iceland
Illinois
India
Indiana
Inverness
Ireland
Britain and
Catholics in
crime in
diets in
economy of
emigration to U.S. from
farming in
Great Famine in
humanitarian relief in
Inverness incident in
land values in
movement toward cities in
nationalist uprising in
police forces in
population of
potatoes in
Protestants in
public gatherings in
rain and cold in
relief efforts in
rural population of
typhus in
unemployment in
iron
Irving, Washington
Italy
colored snowfall in
Jackson, Andrew
Java
British possession of
Jefferson, Thomas
weather observations of
Jerome, Chauncey
jet stream
John, Saint
John VI, King
Johnson, Richard
Jones, William
Kent, Duke of
King, Rufus
Krakatoa
Laki
Lamb, H. H.
Lancaster Gazetteer
Lancaster Sands (Turner)
landscape artists
Turner
Latrobe, Benjamin
Lausanne
Leavitt, Dudley
Leigh, Augusta
Leopold I, King
Lewis, Matthew Gregory “Monk”
lightning rods
lightning storms
Linguet, Simon-Nicholas Henri
Lining, John
liquor
Little, Enoch
Liverpool, Robert Jenkinson, Lord
London
sunsets in
London Chronicle
London Examiner
London Star
Louis XIV, King
Louis XVI, King
Louis XVIII, King
Louisiana
Lowell, Frances Cabot
lunar eclipse
Lyon
Mackenzie, George
MacLaurin, John
Madison, Dolley
Madison, James
Executive Mansion of
popularity of
weather observations of
Maine
emigration out of
Malthus, Thomas Robert
maple syrup
Maria, Queen
Marie Antoinette
Marie Thérèse de France
Marshall, John
Mary, Princess
Maryland Gazette
Massachusetts
Mather, Cotton
Maunder, Edward
Maunder Minimum
Mease, James
Mersenne, Marin
meteorology
instruments used in
medicine and
theological
Metternich, Klemens von
Milan
Milbanke, Annabella
milk
Mill, James
millennialists
miners
Mississippi River
Monroe, James
Montreal
Montreal Herald
moon
eclipse of
Moor’s Charity School
Mormon Church
Morning Chronicle
Mount Agung
Mount Mayon
Mount St. Helens
Mount Tambora
eruptions of
Mount Tambora eruption of 1815
aerosol cloud from
ash cloud from
cooling from
deaths from
explosions in
magnitude of
news of
preliminary eruption
pumice from
pyroclastic flows from
rainstorm following
tremors from
tsunami from
Murray, John
Napoléon I, Emperor
in Battle of Waterloo
exile in Elba
Raffles and
return to Paris
National Register
Native Americans
Natural Theology
Navier, Claude-Louis
Navier-Stokes equations
Necker, Jacques
Netherlands
Neuville, Jean-Guillaume Hyde de
Newcastle Mercury
New England
emigration out of
farming in
fields of ice in
forest fires in
rain in
New England Palladium
New Hampshire
Dartmouth College in
textile industry in
New-Hampshire Patriot
New-Hampshire Sentinel
New York City
New York Evening Post
Nicholas, Wilson Cary
Niles, Hezekiah
Niles’ Weekly Register
Noel, Lady
Norfolk Beacon
Norfolk Chronicle
North America:
debate over climate change in
in winter of 1815–16
North American Review
North and South poles
cyclonic vortex near
North Atlantic Oscillation
North Carolina
Novarupta
nuclear bombs
oats
ocean temperatures
O’Connell, Daniel
Ohio
olive oil
Oliver, William
omega blocks
orchards
Paley, William
Paris
Pascal, Blaise
peace
Peel, Robert
Pennsylvania
farms in
; Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Perceval, Spencer
Persuasion (Austen)
Petersburg Intelligencer
Philip V, King
Phillips, Owen
Picture of Philadelphia (Mease)
Pilgrims
Pinatubo
Place, Francis
Plumer, William
Polidori, John W.
Political Register
pollution
Poor Employment Act
pork
Portugal
Post, John D.
presidential election of 1816
Priestly, J. B.
Prince, Thomas
Prince Regent (George IV)
Providentialism
Prussia
Quarterly Review
Quebec
Quebec Gazette
Raffles, Stamford
Napoléon and
Raffles, Thomas
rain:
in Continental Europe
drought
in Great Britain
in Ireland
in New England
in Virginia
Randolph, John
religion
apocalyptic predictions
French Revolution and
Pilgrims and
prayers
processions
revival movements
in upstate New York
Revelation, Book of
Ricardo, David
Richardson, Lew Fry
Richmond Enquirer
Robbins, Samuel
Robbins, Thomas
Rocca, Albert Jean Michel de
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Royal Academy of Sciences
Royal Cornwall Gazette
Royal Meteorological Society
Rumford’s soup
Rush, Richard
Rutland Herald
Saint Helena
Sanggar
Santa Maria
Saussure, Horace-Bénédict de
Schwarzenberg, Karl
science
Scotland
Selkirk, Earl of
sheep
Shelley, Frances, Lady
Shelley, Harriet Wentworth
Shelley, John
Shelley, Mary Godwin
death of
Frankenstein
half-sister of
Percy’s marriage to
Shelley, Percy Bysshe
death of
Mary’s marriage to
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley
Shindell, Drew
Sidmouth, Lord
Simond, Louis
Singapore
Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de
slavery
Smith, Adam
Smith, David C.
Smith, Don Carlos
Smith, Joseph
Smith, Joseph, Jr.
Smith, Lucy
snow
colored
in spring and summer of 1816
Société Royale de Médecine
soil temperatures
Soufrière
South Carolina
Spain
spring of 1816
squirrels
steamboats
Stendhal
Stilwell, Lewis
Stockbridge Star
Stoker, Bram
Stokes, George Gabriel
Sumatra
Sumbawa
Sumenep
summer of 1817
sun
eclipse of
magnetic field around
prediction of extinguishment of
sunsets
sunspots
superstition
Surakarta
Switzerland
crime in
emigration out of
famine in
Taiwan
Tambora (village)
Tambora (volcano)
eruption of 1815, see Mount Tambora eruption of 1815
eruptions of
Teignmouth
telegraph
temperatures:
cooling from Mount Tambora
of Earth interior
in Europe
North American climate change
Teramo
textile industries
thermometers
Thomas, David
Thompson, Benjamin
Times (London)
Tompkins, Daniel
Torricelli, Evangelista
trade winds
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
Turner, William
Twomey, Sean
“Two-Penny Trash”
typhus
United States:
Bank of
cities in
Compensation Act in
Congress of
Declaration of Independence anniversary in
Democratic-Republicans in
emigration from Europe to
farming in, see farming, in U.S.
federal budget of
Federalists in
improved relations between Britain and
manufacturing in
national debt of
nationalism in
Native American tribes in
political parties in
population growth in
presidential election of 1816
Spain and
taxes in
transportation in
War of 1812
winter of 1815–16 in
University of Virginia
Vermont
Vermont Journal
Vermont Mirror
Vermont Register and Almanac
Vesuvius
vineyards
Virginia, 138,1 59–60
volcanic eruptions:
computer simulations of
cooling temperatures caused by
Eyjafjallajökull
Huaynaputina
Krakatoa
Laki
measurement of
Mount Agung
Mount St. Helens
Novarupta
Pinatubo
Santa Maria
Vesuvius
Volcanic Explosivity Index
Volney, Comte de
Voltaire
warm fronts
War of 1812
Waterloo, Battle of
weather:
collection of measurements and statistics on
diaries on
disease correlated with
forecasting of
Jefferson’s observations on
Madison’s observations on
in summer of 1811
in summers immediately preceding 1816
see also meteorology; temperatures
wars
Washington, George
Webster, Noah
Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of
wheat:
harvesting of
see also grain and bread
Wheelock, Eleazar
Wheelock, John
Whitman, Joshua
Whitworth, Lord
Wilberforce, William
William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester
Williams, Samuel
Willis, Francis
winds, westerly
winter of 1815–16:
in Europe
in North America
winters:
American, debate over temperatures in
in New England
in Europe
snow in
winter storms in summer
Wirt, William
witches
Wollstonecraft, Mary
illegitimate daughter of
Wood, Gordon
woolen goods
Year of Wonders
York, Duke of
Young, William
Yverdon
Zanesville Messenger
Zere
fos, C. S.
Zichy, Francois
ALSO BY WILLIAM K. KLINGAMAN
1919: The Year Our World Began
1929: The Year of the Great Crash
1941: Our Lives in a World on the Edge
Abraham Lincoln and the Road to Emancipation
Encyclopedia of the McCarthy Era
The First Century: Emperors, Gods, and Everyman
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
WILLIAM K. KLINGAMAN (left) holds a Ph.D. in American history from the University of Virginia and has taught at the University of Virginia and the University of Maryland. He is the author of six previous books, including narrative histories of the years 1918, 1929, and 1941.
NICHOLAS P. KLINGAMAN holds a Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Reading, United Kingdom, where he is now a research scientist. His work focuses on improving computer simulations of tropical weather and climate, particularly monsoons, and on investigating the effects of climate change on tropical weather patterns.
THE YEAR WITHOUT SUMMER: 1816 AND THE VOLCANO THAT DARKENED THE WORLD AND CHANGED HISTORY. Copyright © 2013 by William K. Klingaman and Nicholas P. Klingaman. All rights reserved. For information, address St. Martin’s Press, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010.
www.stmartins.com
Cover illustration by Rob Wood
ISBN 978-0-312-67645-2 (hardcover)
ISBN 9781250012067 (e-book)
First Edition: February 2013
The Year Without Summer: 1816 and the Volcano That Darkened the World and Changed History Page 35