by Peter Watson
42. Ibid., page 51.
43. Benington and Derrida, Op. cit., pages 23–42.
44. See the essay ‘Différance’ in Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, London: Harvester Press, 1982, pages 3–27.
45. Cantor, Op. cit., pages 304–305; see also Susan James, ‘Louis Althusser,’ in Skinner (editor), Op. cit., page 151.
46. Susan James, ‘Louis Althusser’, in Skinner (editor), Op. cit., pages 144 and 148.
47. Louis Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays, London: New Left Books, 1971, translated from the French by Ben Brewster, pages 135ff and 161–168. See also: Kevin McDonnell and Kevin Robins, ‘Marxist Cultural Theory: The Althusserian Smokescreen,’ in Simon Clark et al. (editors), One-Dimensional Marxism: Althusser and the Politics of Culture, London and New York: Alison & Busby, 1980, pages 157ff. James, Op. cit., pages 152–153.
48. For a detailed discussion of ideology and its applications, see: Louis Althusser, Philosophy and Spontaneous Philosophy of the Scientists, London and New York: Verso, 1990, pages 73ft
49. Anthony Giddens, ‘Jurgen Habermas’, in Skinner (editor), Op. cit., page 123.
50. See: Jurgen Habermas, Post-Metaphysical Thinking: Philosophical Essays, London: Polity, 1993, especially essay three. Giddens, in Skinner (editor), Op. cit., pages 124–125.
51. Giddens, Op. cit., page 126.
52. Rick Roderick, Habermas and the Foundations of Critical Theory, London: Macmillan, 1986, page 56.
53. Giddens, Op. cit., page 127.
54. Ibid.
55. Louis-Jean Calvet, Roland Barthes: A Biography, London: Polity, 1994. Translator: Sarah Wykes, especially pages 97ff and 135ff.
56. Roland Barthes, Mythologies, London: Jonathan Cape, 1972, paperback 1993. Selected and translated by Annette Lavers.
57. Ibid., page 98.
58. Roland Barthes, Image, Music, Text, London: Fontana, 1977, pages 142ff Translator: Stephen Heath.
59. Roland Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1975, page 16. Translator: Richard Miller.
60. Ibid., page 17.
61. Barthes’ biographer asks the pointed question as to who will be remembered best out of the two French intellectuals who died in 1984 – Barthes or Sartre? The latter was undoubtedly more famous in life but … See Calvet, Op. cit., page 266.
62. Thompson and Bordwell, Film History, Op. cit., page 493.
63. Robin Buss, French Film Noir, London and New York: Marion Boyars, 1994, pages 139–141 and 506–509.
64. Ibid., pages 510–512.
65. Truffaut thought he was heavy-handed. See: Gilles Jacob and Claude de Givray, Francois Truffaut – Letters, London: Faber, 1989, page 187. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 511.
66. For a filli list see the table in Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., page 522.
67. At one point, Jerome Robbins wanted to make a ballet out of ‘400 Blows’. See Jacob and Givray (editors), Op. cit., page 158.
68. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., pages 523— 525.
69. Ibid., pages 528–529.
70. Ambiguous yes, but Truffaut thought the film had been well understood by audiences. See: Jacob and Givray (editors), Op. cit., page 426. See also: Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., pages 524–525.
71. See Richard Roud, Jean-Luc Godard, London: Secker & Warburg in association with BFI, 1967, page 48, for Godard’s philosophy on story-telling. James Pallot and Jacob Levich (editors), The Fifth Virgin Film Guide, London: Virgin, 1996, page 83.
72. Thompson and Bordwell, Op. cit., pages 519–522.
73. Ibid., page 529. Pallot and Levich, Op. cit., page 376, point out that at another level it is a parody of ‘Hollywood love triangles.’
74. Pallot and Levich, Op. cit., page 341.
75. Ibid., page 758.
76. For a discussion of the ‘boundaries abandoned’ in this film, see: Colin McCabe et al., Godard, Images, Sounds, Politics, London: BFI/Macmillan, 1980, pages 39. See also: Louis-Jean Calvet’s biography of Barthes (note 55 above), pages 140–141.
77. Peter Brook, Threads of Time, London: Methuen, 1998.
78. Ibid., page 127.
79. Ibid., page 134.
80. Ibid., page 54.
81. Ibid., page 137.
82. M. M. Delgado and Paul Heritage (editors), Directors Talk Theatre, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996, page 38.
83. Brook, Op. cit., page 177. Delgado and Heritage, Op. cit., page 38.
84. Brook, Op. cit., pages 182–183.
85. Ibid., page 208.
86. Ibid., pages 189–193.
87. Delgado and Heritage (editors), Op. cit., page 49.
88. Brook, Op. cit., page 225.
89. At the same time he was obsessed with traditional theatrical problems, such as character. See: John Peters, Vladimir’s Carrot: Modem Drama and the Modem Imagination, London: Deutsch, 1987, page 314.
90. Brook, Op cit., page 226.
CHAPTER 36: DOING WELL, AND DOING GOOD
1. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously, London: Duckworth, 1978.
2. Ibid., pages 266ff.
3. Ibid., pages 184ff.
4. Ibid., pages 204–205.
5. Milton and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1980, Penguin paperback 1980.
6. Ibid., page 15.
7. Ibid., page 107.
8. Ibid., page 179.
9. Ibid., page 174.
10. Ibid., page 229.
11. Paul Krugman, Peddling Prosperity: Economic Sense and Nonsense in the Age of Diminished Expectations, New York: W. W. Norton, 1994, page 15.
12. Ibid., pages 178ff.
13. Robert Solow, Interview with the author, MIT, 4 December, 1997. Solow’s views first emerged in several articles in the Quarterly Journal of Economics in 1956, and the Review of Economic Statistics, a year later.
14. Krugman, Op. cit., pages 64–65.
15. Ibid., page 197.
16. Robert Solow, Learning from ‘Learning by Doing’: Lessons for Economic Growth, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1997.
17. Ibid., page 20.
18. Ibid., page 82ff; see also Krugman, Op. cit., pages 200–202.
19. See also: ‘The economics of Qwerty’, chapter 9 of Krugman, Op cit., pages 221ff.
20. Friedman and Friedman, Op cit., pages 19–20.
21. Amartya Sen, On Ethics and Economics, Oxford: Blackwell, 1987, paperback 1988. The Prisoner’s Dilemma is discussed at pages 82ff.
22. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1981, paperback 1982.
23. Ibid., pages 57–63.
24. Krugman, Op. cit., chapter 8: ‘In the long run Keynes is still alive’, pages 197ff.
25. Ibid., pages 128, 235 and 282.
26. J. K. Galbraith, The Culture of Contentment, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.
27. Ibid., page 107.
28. Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy 1930–1980, London: Basic Books, 1984.
29. Ibid., page 146.
30. Ibid., Part II.
31. Galbraith, Op. cit., page 106.
32. J. K. Galbraith, The Good Society, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996.
33. Ibid., page 133, chapter 8–11.
34. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal, New York: Ballantine, 1992, paperback 1995.
35. Ibid., page 74.
36. Ibid., page 84.
37. Not as influential as Hacker’s, or Murray’s, book, but still worth reading alongside them is: Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How it Changed America, New York: Knopf, 1991, Vintage paperback 1992, which looks at the migration patterns of five million African-Americans between 1940 and 1970.
38. Hacker, Op. cit., page 229.
39. In Progress and the Invisible Hand: The Philosophy and Economics of Human Advance, London: Little, Brown, 1998, Richard Bronk attempts a marriage of psychology, eco
nomic history, growth theory, complexity theory, and the growth of individualism, to provide a pessimistic vision, a re-run in effect of Daniel Bell’s The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, acknowledging that the forces of capitalism threaten the balance of ‘creative liberty’ and ‘civic duty.’ A symposium on the future of economics, published at the millennium in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, confirmed two directions for the discipline. One, to take greater account of complexity theory (see below, chapter 42); and two, a greater marriage with psychology, in particular the way individuals behave economically in a not-quite rational way. See, for example, The Economist, 4 March 2000, page 112.
CHAPTER 37: THE WAGES OF REPRESSION
1. Randy Shilts, And the Band Played On, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1987, Penguin 1988, pages 20 and 93–94.
2. For an account of the gay community on the eve of the crisis, see: Robert A. Padgug and Gerald M. Oppenheimer, ‘Riding the Tiger: AIDS and the Gay community,’ in Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Fox (editors), AIDS: The Making of a Chronic Disease, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1992, pages 245ff.
3. Shilts, Op. cit., page 94.
4. Ibid., page 244. See also Fee and Fox (editors), Op. cit., pages 279ff for an account of HIV in New York.
5. Weatherall, In Search of a Cure, Op. cit., pages 240–241.
6. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine, Volume 1, London: Routledge, 1993, page 138.
7. Weatherall, Op. cit., page 241.
8. Bynum and Porter, Op. cit., volume 2, page 1023.
9. Weatherall, Op. cit., pages 224–226.
10. Ibid.
11. Bynum and Porter, Op. cit., pages 1023–1024 for a more complete history.
12. Mirko D. Grmek, A History of AIDS, Princeton and London: Princeton University Press, 1990, pages 58–59.
13. Shilts, Op cit., pages 73–74 and 319.
14. Grmek, Op. cit., pages 62–70. Shilts, Op. cit., pages 50–51.
15. For a short but balanced history of cancer, see David Cantor, ‘Cancer,’ in Bynum and Porter, Op. cit., volume 1, pages 537–559.
16. Harold Varmus and Robert Weinberg, Genes and the Biology of Cancer, New York: Scientific American Library, 1993. A large study in Scandinavia, reported in July 2000, concluded that ‘environmental factors’ accounted for more than 50 per cent of cancers.
17. Ibid., page 51.
18. Ibid., page 185.
19. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1998; published in paperback with AIDS and its Metaphors, 1990.
20. Sontag, Op. cit., page 3.
21. Ibid., pages 13–14.
22. Ibid., pages 17–18.
23. See above, note 19, for publication details.
24. Sontag, Op. cit., page 124.
25. Ibid., page 165.
26. Ibid., page 163.
27. Shilts, Op. cit., page 453.
28. For a whole book dedicated to the effect of AIDS on the artistic community, see James Miller (editor), Fluid Exchanges, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.
29. Jeffrey Masson, Against Therapy, London: Collins, 1989, Fontana paperback, 1990, page 165.
30. Ibid., page 185.
31. Ibid., page 101.
32. For Maslow, see ibid., chapters 7 and 8, pages 229ff and 248ff respectively.
33. Ernest Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason, London: Paladin, 1985, Fontana, 1993.
34. Ibid., pages 36–37.
35. Ibid., page 76.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., page 162.
38. Ibid., page 104–105.
39. Jane Howard, Margaret Mead: A Life, Op. cit., pages 432ff.
40. Derek Freeman, Margaret Mead and Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983.
41. Howard, Op. cit., page 435.
42. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Mankind from Antiquity to the Present, London: HarperCollins, 1997, page 596.
43. Ibid., page 718.
CHAPTER 38: LOCAL KNOWLEDGE
1. Jean-François Lyotard, The Post-Modem Condition: A Report on Knowledge, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984.
2. See his: ‘The Psychoanalytic Approach to Artistic and Literary Expression,’ in Toward The Post-Modem, New York: Humanities Press, 1993, pages 2–11; Part 1 of this book is headed ‘Libidinal’, Part 2 ‘Pagan’, and Part 3 ‘Intractable.’
3. Lyotard, The Post-Modern Condition, Op. cit., page xxiv.
4. Ibid., pages 42–46.
5. Ibid., page 60.
6. Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Oxford: Blackwell, 1980.
7. Ibid., pages 34–38.
8. Ibid., page 363.
9. Ibid., page 367.
10. Ibid., pages 367–368.
11. Ibid., pages 389–391.
12. Richard Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
13. Rorty, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth, Op. cit., pages 56–57.
14. Ibid., page 37.
15. Ibid., page 39.
16. Ibid., page 40.
17. Ibid., pages 203ff.
18. Ibid., page 218.
19. Thomas Nagel, Mortal Questions, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979; and The View From Nowhere, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986, paperback, 1989.
20. Nagel, Mortal Questions, Op. cit., page x.
21. Nagel, The View From Nowhere, Op. cit., page 26.
22. Ibid., page 52.
23. Ibid., pages 78–79.
24. Ibid., page 84.
25. Ibid., page 85.
26. Ibid., page 108.
27. Ibid., page 107.
28. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books, 1973.
29. Ibid., page 36.
30. Ibid., pages 3ff.
31. Ibid., page 412.
32. Ibid., page 435.
33. Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge, New York: Basic Books, 1983, paperback edition 1997, page 8.
34. Ibid., page 74.
35. Ibid., page 151.
36. Ibid., page 161.
37. Geertz’s work continues in two lecture series published as books. See: Works and Lives, London: Polity, 1988; and After the Fact, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1995.
38. Bryan Magee, Men of Ideas, Op. cit., pages 196–197.
39. Consider some of the topics tackled in his various books: ‘Two concepts of rationality’ and ‘The impact of science on modern concepts of rationality,’ in Reason, Truth and History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ‘What is mathematical truth?’ and ‘The logic of quantum mechanics,’ in Mathematics, Matter and Method, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980; and ‘Why there isn’t a ready-made world’ and ‘Why reason can’t be naturalised,’ in Realism and Reason, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Magee, Op. cit., pages 202 and 205.
40. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, Op. cit., page 215. Magee, Op. cit., page 201.
41. Magee, Op. cit., pages 143–145.
42. For a more accessible form of Van Quine’s ideas, see: Quiddities: An Intermittently Philosophical Dictionary, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987, where certain aspects of everyday life are ingeniously represented mathematically. But see also: ‘Success and Limits of Mathamaticalism’, in Theories and Things, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1981, pages 148ff. See also: Magee, Op. cit., page 147.
43. For Van Quine’s place vis à vis analytical philosophy, see: George D. Romanos, Quine and Analytic Philosophy, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1983, pages 179ff. Magee, Op. cit., page 149.
44. Alasdair Maclntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, London: Duckworth, 1988.
45. Ibid., page 140.
46. Ibid., page 301.
47. Ibid., page 302.
48. Ibid., page 304.
49. Ibid., page 339.
50. Ibid., page 500.
51. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford: Blackwell, 1980, paperback 1990.
52. Ibid., pages 8–9.
53. Ibid., page 3.
54. Ibid., page 135.
55. Ibid., page 137.
56. Ibid., page 136.
57. Ibid., page 140.
58. Ibid., page 147.
59. Ibid., page 156.
60. Ibid., page 351.
61. Ibid., page 350.
62. Ibid., page 328.
CHAPTER 39: ‘THE BEST IDEA EVER’
1. Bodmer and McKie, The Book of Man, Op. cit., page 259.
2. Colin Tudge, The Engineer in the Garden, Op. cit., pages 257–260.
3. Bodmer and McKie, Op. cit., page 257.
4. Ibid., page 259.
5. Ibid., page 261.
6. A. G. Cairns-Smith, Seven Clues to the Origin of Life, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
7. Ibid., page 47.
8. Ibid., page 74.
9. Ibid., page 80.
10. Richard Fortey, Life: An Unauthorised Biography, London: HarperCollins, 1997; Flamingo paperback, 1998, pages 44 and 54ff.
11. Ibid., pages 55–56, where the calculation for bacterial production of oxygen is given.
12. J. D. MacDougall, A Short History of Planet Earth, New York: Wiley, 1996, pages 34–36. Fortey, Op. cit., pages 59–61.
13. Ibid., page 52. See also: Tudge, Op. cit., pages 331 and 334–335 for a discussion of the implications of Margulis’s idea for the notion of co-operation. Fortey, Op. cit., pages 68–69.
14. For slimes, see: Fortey, Op. cit., pages 81ff; for Ediacara see ibid., pages 86ff. The Ediacara are named after Ediacara Hill in South Australia, where they were first discovered. In March 2000, in a lecture at the Royal Institution in London, Dr Andrew Parker, a zoologist and Fellow of Somerville College, Oxford, attributed the Cambrian explosion to the evolution of vision, arguing that organisms had to develop rapidly to escape a predator’s line of sight. See: The (London) Times, 1 March 2000, page 41.
15. Fortey, Op. cit., pages 102ff.
16. MacDougall, Op. cit., pages 30–31.
17. John Noble Wilford, The Riddle of the Dinosaurs, London and Boston: Faber, 1986, pages 221ff.