One thing else I might mention. Great irrigation works were erected about 1400 AC to bring good water to the city. A whole river was dammed up and a big reservoir was made. From this the water went to the city in an aqueduct, 15 miles in length, often cut out of the solid rock.
Such was Vijayanagar. It was proud of its wealth and beauty and over-confident of its strength. No one thought that the end of the city and empire was near. Only forty-three years after the visit of Paes, danger suddenly loomed up. The other States of the Dekhan, jealous of Vijayanagar, formed a league against it and determined to destroy it. Even then Vijayanagar felt foolishly confident. The end came soon, and it was terrible in its completeness.
As I have told you, Vijayanagar was defeated by this league of States in 1565. There was terrible slaughter, and the sack of the great city followed soon after. All the beautiful buildings and temples and palaces were destroyed. The exquisite carvings and sculptures were smashed, and huge bonfires were lit to burn up everything that could be burnt. Destruction went on till only a heap of ruins was left. “Never,” says an English historian, never perhaps in the history of the world has such havoc been wrought, and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full plenitude of prosperity one day, and on the next seized, pillaged, and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and horrors beggaring description.
78
The Malaysian Empires of Madjapahit and Malacca
July 17, 1932
We have been rather neglectful of Malaysia and the Eastern Islands, and it is long since I wrote about them. I have looked back, and I find that my last account of them was in letter 46; since then we have had thirty-one letters, and have now reached number 78. It is difficult to keep all the countries in line.
Do you remember something of what I wrote to you just two months ago today? Of Cambodia and Angkor and Sumatra and Sri Vijaya? How in Indo-China the old Indian colonies developed in the course of many hundred years into one big State—the Empire of Cambodia? And then Nature intervened and, harshly and suddenly, put an end to the city and the empire. This took place about 1300 AC.
Almost contemporaneous with—that is, existing at the same time as—the Cambodian State was another great State across the sea in the island of Sumatra. But Sri Vijaya started a little later in its career of empire, and outlasted Cambodia. Its end was also rather sudden, but it was man, and not Nature, that brought it about. For 300 years the Buddhist Empire of Sri Vijaya flourished and controlled almost all the islands of the East, and for a while even had a footing in India and Ceylon and China. It was a merchant empire, and trade was its chief function. But then arose another merchant State near by in the eastern part of the island of Java—a Hindu State which had refused to be subdued by Sri Vijaya.
For 400 years, from the beginning of the ninth century, this Eastern Javan State was menaced by the growing power of Sri Vijaya. But it succeeded in retaining its independence, and at the same time in building an amazing number of fine stone temples. The greatest of these, known as the Borobodur temples, are still to be seen, and attract numerous visitors. Having escaped the dominion of Sri Vijaya, East Java itself became aggressive, and in its turn became a menace to its old rival Sri Vijaya. Both were merchant States, crossing the seas for trade, and so they were often coming into conflict with each other.
I feel tempted to compare this rivalry of Java and Sumatra with the rivalries of modern Powers, say, of Germany and England. Java, feeling that the only way to check Sri Vijaya and increase its own trade was to add to its naval strength, developed its sea power greatly. Great naval expeditions were sent out, but often they did not come to grips with the enemy for years. So Java went on growing and became more and more aggressive. Towards the end of the thirteenth century a city was founded, named Madjapahit, and this became the capital of the growing Javan State.
So presumptuous and arrogant did this Javan State become that it actually insulted some envoys of Kublai, the Great Khan, who had sent them for tribute. Not only was no tribute paid, but one of the envoys had an insulting message tattooed on the forehead! It was a very foolish and dangerous game to play with a Mongol Khan. A similar insult had resulted in the destruction of Central Asia by Chengiz, and later of Baghdad by Hulagu. And yet the little island State of Java dared to offer it. But, fortunately for it, the Mongols had toned down a great deal and had no desire for conquest. Naval fighting was also not much to their liking; they felt stronger on solid land. Still Kublai sent an expedition to Java to punish the guilty ruler. The Chinese defeated the Javanese and killed the king. But they do not seem to have done much damage. How the Mongols had changed under Chinese influence!
Indeed, the Chinese expedition seems ultimately to have resulted in making Java, or the Madjapahit Empire as we shall now call it, stronger. This was because the Chinese introduced firearms into Java, and it was probably the use of these firearms that brought victory to Madjapahit in subsequent wars.
The Empire of Madjapahit went on expanding. This was not by chance or in a haphazard way. It was imperialist expansion organized by the State and carried on by an efficient army and navy. A woman, Queen Suhita, was the ruler during part of this period of expansion. The government appears to have been highly centralized and efficient. It is stated by Western historians that the system of taxation, customs, tolls and internal revenues was excellent. Among the separate departments of government were: a Colonial Department, a Commerce Department, a Department of Public Welfare and Public Health, a Department of the Interior, and a War Department. There was a Supreme Court consisting of two presiding officers and seven judges. The Brahman priests seem to have had a good deal of power, but the King was supposed to control them.
These departments, and even some of the names for them, remind us to some extent of the Arthashastra. But the Colonial Department was new. The Minister in charge of the Department for the Interior, which dealt with the affairs of the home State, was called mantri. This shows that Indian traditions and culture continued in these islands 1200 years after the first settlements were made by the Pallava colonists from South India. This could only be so if the contacts were kept up. There is no doubt that such contacts were kept up by means of trade.
As Madjapahit was a trading empire, it is natural that the export and import trades—that is to say, the trades relating to the goods that were sent out and those that were received from other countries—were carefully organized. These trades were chiefly with India, China and its own colonies. So long as there was a state of war with Sri Vijaya it was not possible to have peaceful trade with it or its colonies.
The Javan State lasted for many hundreds of years, but the great period of the Empire of Madjapahit was from 1335 to 1380, just forty-five years. It was during this period, in 1377, that Sri Vijaya was finally captured and destroyed. With Annam, Siam and Cambodia there were alliances.
The capital city of Madjapahit was a fine and prosperous city, with a mighty Shiva temple in the centre. There were many splendid buildings. Indeed, all the Indian colonies in Malaysia specialized in fine buildings. There were several other great cities and many ports in Java.
This imperialist State did not long survive its old enemy, Sri Vijaya. There was civil war and trouble with China, which resulted in a great Chinese fleet coming to Java. The colonies gradually dropped off. In 1426 there was a great famine, and two years later Madjapahit ceased to be an empire. It carried on, however, as an independent State for another fifty years, when the Muslim State of Malacca captured it.
Thus ended the third of the empires which had grown out of the old Indian settlements in Malaysia. In our short letters we have dealt with long periods. The first colonists came from India almost at the beginning of the Christian era, and we are now in the fifteenth century. So we have surveyed 1400 years of the history of these settlements. Each of the three empire States we have especially considered—Cambodia, Sri Vijaya and Madjapahit—lasted for hu
ndreds of years. It is well to remember these long periods, as they give some idea of the stability and efficiency of these States. Fine architecture was their special love, and trade their main business. They carried on the tradition of Indian culture and mixed with it harmoniously many elements from Chinese culture.
You will remember that there were many other Indian settlements besides the three I have especially mentioned. But we cannot consider each one separately. Nor can I say much about two neighbouring countries—Burma and Siam. In both these countries powerful States arose and there was a great deal of artistic activity. Buddhism spread in both of them. Burma was invaded by the Mongols once, but Siam was never invaded by China. Both Burma and Siam, however, often paid tribute to China. It was a kind of offering which a respectful younger brother might make to an elder. In return for this tribute rich gifts came from China to the younger brother.
Before the Mongol invasion of Burma, the capital of the country was the city of Pagan in North Burma. For over 200 years this city was the capital, and it is said that it was a very beautiful city, its only rival being Angkor. Its finest building was the Anand temple, one of the most beautiful examples of Buddhist architecture in the world. There were many other magnificent buildings. Indeed, even the ruins of Pagan city now are beautiful. Pagan’s days of greatness were from the eleventh to the thirteenth century. There was some trouble and confusion in Burma for some time afterwards, and North and South Burma were separate. In the sixteenth century a great ruler arose in the south, and he united Burma again. His capital was Pegu in the south.
I hope this short and sudden reference to Burma and Siam will not confuse you. We have arrived at the end of a chapter in the history of Malaysia and Indonesia, and I wanted to complete our survey. So far, the principal influences, political and cultural, which affected these parts had their origin in India and China. As I have told you already, the continental countries in the south-east of Asia, like Burma, Siam, Indo-China, were more influenced by China; the islands and the Malay Peninsula were more influenced by India.
Now a new influence comes on the scene; This is brought by the Arabs. Burma and Siam were not affected by this, but Malay and the islands succumb to it, and soon a Muslim empire grows up.
Arab traders had visited these islands and settled there for 1000 years or more. But they were intent on business, and did not otherwise interfere with the governments. In the fourteenth century Arab missionaries came out from Arabia, and they met with success, especially in converting some of the local rulers.
Meanwhile political changes were taking place. Madjapahit was expanding and crushing Sri Vijaya. When Sri Vijaya fell, large numbers of refugees went to the south of the Malay Peninsula and founded the city of Malacca there. This city, as well as the States, grew rapidly, and by 1400 it was already a large city. The Javanese people of Madjapahit were not liked by their subject peoples. As is usual with imperialists, they were tyrannous, and many people preferred going to the new State of Malacca to remaining under Madjapahit. Siam was also at the time rather aggressive. So Malacca became a place of refuge for many people. There were both Buddhists and Muslims. The rulers were at first Buddhists, but later they adopted Islam.
The young State of Malacca was menaced by Java on the one side and Siam on the other. It tried to find friends and allies among the other small Muslim States in the islands. It even appealed to China for protection. At that time the Mings, who had displaced the Mongols, ruled in China. It is remarkable how all the little Islamic States in Malaysia turned to China for protection at the same time. This shows that there must have been some immediate threat from powerful enemies.
China had always followed a policy towards the Malaysian countries of friendly but dignified isolation. She was not keen on conquest. She felt that it had little to gain from them, but she was prepared to teach them her civilization. The Ming Emperor apparently decided to vary this old policy and to take greater interest in these countries. He does not seem to have approved of the aggression of Java and of Siam. So, to check these and to make the power of China felt by others, he sent out a vast fleet under Admiral Cheng Ho. Some of the ships in this fleet were 400 feet in length.
Cheng Ho made many trips and visited almost all the islands— Philippines, Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, etc. He even came to Ceylon and conquered it and carried off the king to China. In his last expedition he went as far as the Persian Gulf. Cheng Ho’s voyages in the early years of the fifteenth century had great influence over all the countries he visited. Wishing to check Hindu Madjapahit and Buddhist Siam, he deliberately encouraged Islam, and the State of Malacca became firmly established under the protection of his great fleet. Cheng Ho’s motives were, of course, purely political, and had nothing to do with religion. He himself was a Buddhist.
So the State of Malacca became the head of the opposition to Madjapahit. Its strength grew and gradually it seized the colonies of Java. In 1478 the city of Madjapahit itself was captured. Islam then became the religion of the Court and of the cities. But in the countryside, as in India, the old faith and myths and customs continued.
The Malaccan Empire might have become as great and as long-lived as Sri Vijaya and Madjapahit, but it did not have the chance. The Portuguese intervened, and within a few years—in 1511—Malacca fell to them. So the fourth of these empires gave place to a fifth, which itself was not to have a long life. And for the first time in history Europe became aggressive and dominant in these eastern waters.
79
Europe Begins to Grab in Eastern Asia
July 19, 1932
We ended our last letter with the appearance of the Portuguese in Malaysia. You will remember my telling you a short while ago of the discovery of the sea routes, and how the Portuguese and the Spanish had a kind of race to reach the East first. Portugal went east; Spain went west. Portugal managed to come round Africa to India; Spain stumbled by mistake on America, and later came round South America to Malaysia. We can now join up some of our threads, and carry on our story of Malaysia.
Spices (pepper, etc.), as you perhaps know, are produced in hot climates, in countries near the equator. Europe does not produce them at all. South India and Ceylon produce some. But most of these spices came from the Malaysian islands, called the Moluccas. These islands are, in fact, called the Spice Islands. From the earliest times there was a great demand in Europe for these spices, and they were regularly sent. By the time they reached Europe they were very valuable. In Roman times pepper was worth its weight in gold. Although spices were so valuable and were in such demand in the West, Europe took no steps to get them itself. For a long time the spice trade was in the hands of Indians; later the Arabs controlled it. It was the lure of the spices that drew the Portuguese and Spaniards on and on from different sides of the world, till they met in Malaysia. The Portuguese had a lead in this quest, as the Spanish got busy, and very profitably busy, in America on the way to the East.
Soon after Vasco da Gama reached India via the Cape of Good Hope, many Portuguese ships came the same way, and they went farther east. Just then the new Empire of Malacca controlled the spice and other trade. So immediately the Portuguese came into conflict with it and with the Arab traders generally. Their Viceroy, Albuquerque, seized Malacca in 1511 and put an end to Muslim trade. The Portuguese now controlled the trade to Europe, and their capital in Europe, Lisbon, became the great commercial centre for distributing spices and many other Eastern goods in Europe.
It is worth noting that although Albuquerque was a harsh and cruel enemy to the Arabs, he tried to be friendly with the other commercial people in the East. In particular, he treated all the Chinese he came across with especial courtesy, with the result that favourable reports of the Portuguese were carried to China. Probably hostility to the Arabs was due to the Arab predominance in Eastern trade.
Meanwhile the search for the Spice Islands continued and Magellan, who later crossed the Pacific and went round the world, was a member of the expedit
ion which found the Moluccas. For over sixty years the Portuguese had no rival in the spice trade to Europe. Then in 1565 Spain occupied the Philippine Islands, and thus a second European Power appeared in Eastern waters. But Spain made little difference to Portuguese trade, as the Spanish were not primarily a commercial people. They sent soldiers and missionaries to the East. Meanwhile Portugal had a monopoly of the spice trade, so much so that even Persia and Egypt had to get their spices through the Portuguese. They would not even allow anyone else to trade directly with the Spice Islands. So Portugal grew rich, but it made no attempt to develop colonies. As you know, it is a small country, and it did not have enough men to send out. It is surprising enough what this little country was able to do for a hundred years—the whole of the sixteenth century—in the East.
Meanwhile the Spanish stuck to the Philippines and tried to make as much money from them as possible. They did little except extort tribute. With the Portuguese they had come to terms to avoid conflict in Eastern waters. The Spanish Government would not allow the Philippines to trade with Spanish America, as they were afraid that the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru might flow out to the East. Only one ship a year came and went. This was called the “Manilla Galleon”, and you can imagine how eagerly this annual visit must have been awaited by the Spanish in the Philippines. For 240 years this “Manilla Galleon” crossed the Pacific between the Islands and America.
In Europe these successes of Spain and Portugal were making other nations turn green with envy. As we shall see later, Spain dominated over Europe at that time. England was hardly a first-rate Power. In the Netherlands—that is, Holland and part of Belgium—there had been a revolt against Spanish rule. The English people, sympathizing with the Dutch and envious of Spain, helped the Dutch privately. Some of their seamen went about committing what amounted to piracy on the high seas by capturing the Spanish treasure-ships from America. The leader at this rather risky but profitable game was Sir Francis Drake, and he called it singeing the King of Spain’s beard.
Glimpses of World History Page 39