Inside Syria: The Backstory of Their Civil War and What the World Can Expect
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intolerance for non-Sunni Muslims, 55, 69–70
and Iran, 150
populist Islamism, 233
in Syria, 69–71, 129, 209, 233, 234, 241, 248, 251
and Ahrar al-Sham, 96
attempt to assassinate Assad in 1980, 70, 248
author's interviews with leaders, 18, 93, 187
Commission of the Revolution's Shields, 252
seen as a moderate group, 132
at the start of the uprising in Syria, 91–93
Syrian forces murdering in Tadmur prison, 70, 248
Turkey supporting, 184
Muslim Scholarship Association, 135
mustard gas. See chemical weapons
Nakba [catastrophe] (defeat of Syrian army by Israel in 1948), 247
Nalbandian, Armash, 125, 133–36
Narwani, Sharmine, 123–24
Nasr, Vali R., 233
Nasrallah, Hassan, 148
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 61, 62, 247
National Bloc, 57
National Coalition for Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, 93–94, 214, 241, 252. See also Syrian National Council
National Defense Force (NDF), 132, 141, 241, 242
National Ground Intelligence Center, 108
National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) (US), 103
National Iranian American Council, 163
National Progressive Front (party in Syria), 83
National Security Administration (NSA) (US), 218
NATO, 14, 229
NBC (radio broadcasts), 42
NDF. See National Defense Force
neocolonialism, 24, 38
Netanyahu, Benjamin, 162, 201, 203
New Yorker (magazine), 103
New York Times (newspaper), 102, 104, 118, 119, 200, 214, 216, 224, 225, 252
no-fly zone for Syria, 17–18, 220–21, 222, 251
Nour, Ayman Abdel, 73–74
NSA. See National Security Administration
nuclear bomb
Israel aiding South Africa to develop, 191
US concerns about Iran gaining, 157
freeze on nuclear-enrichment program, 161–62
Obama, Barack, and administration, 97, 103–104, 254
AIPAC/Israel lobby influence on policy in Syria, 200–202
having shifting policies during Syrian uprising, 12, 199–200, 220
considering aligning with Assad until extremist rebels defeated, 119–20
poor choices of groups to ally with, 119
work with SNC, 120, 214
Obama speech to UN in 2013, 217, 218
seeing Syria as religious battleground, 18
and use of chemical weapons in Syria, 12, 101, 199–200, 222–23
exaggerating case, 102, 103–104, 112
Ocalan, Abdullah, 175
oil in the Middle East, 28, 29–30, 66, 130, 177, 178, 217–18
Olmert, Ehud, 203
one-state solution for Israel, Arab countries favoring, 66
Operation Desert Storm, 71, 248
Opposition to Assad, list of groups, 239–41
Oren, Michael, 200
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, 107
Orthodox Church, 243
Oslo Agreement, 72
O'Toole, Peter, 23, 30, 37, 38, 42
Ottoman Empire (1517–1918), 24–25, 41, 133
France as the “protector” of Christians in 1536, 29
Kurds in, 169
in World War I, 25, 30–33, 38
Palestine, 209
European Jews in Ottoman-controlled Palestine, 34
and Israel, 191–212, 248
Palestinian refugees, 65–66, 68, 131, 206, 209, 248
self-determination for, 193
and Syria, 191–212, 235
reactions to Syrian uprising, 205–206, 210–11, 212
and a Zionist state in, 35–36, 46, 91
Zionist sending Jewish settlers to, 43
See also Fatah, al-; Hamas; Palestine Liberation Organization
Palestine Center for Policy and Survey Research poll, 210–11
Palestine Land Development Company, 34
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 66–67, 148, 205–206, 243, 248
in Lebanon, 67–68, 248
Palin, Sarah, 223–24
pan-Arabism, 48, 53, 60, 61, 64, 82, 147, 247. See also Arab nationalism
Paris Peace Conference, 37, 43
Parsi, Trita, 163
Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat (PYD) [Democratic Union Party], 175–76, 178, 182–86, 187–88, 242
forming People's Defense of West Kurdistan, 183
See also Kurdistan Workers Party
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), 172
Paul (Saint), 135, 243
“people of the book.” See Christians
People's Defense of West Kurdistan, 183
Peshmerga Falcons, 187
Petrobras (company), 218
Pew research poll, 211
phosphorus weapons, Israel's use of in Gaza Strip, 211
Picot, François. See Georges-Picot, François
Pillay, Navi, 136
ping-pong balls, use of to reach public in Syria, 86
PKK. See Kurdistan Workers Party
Pletka, Danielle, 222
PLO. See Palestine Liberation Organization
Popular Committees, 132–33, 141, 241–42
Porter, Gareth, 112
Postel, Danny, 224–25
Postol, Theodore A., 104
Precht, Henry, 215–16
privatization of state-owned businesses in Syria, 82, 128–29
Pro-Assad Groups, 123–43
list of, 241–42
PUK. See Patriotic Union of Kurdistan
Putin, Vladimir, 229
PYD. See Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat
Qahtani, Mohammad Fahd al-, 230–31, 232
Qamishli, Syria, 167, 177, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 250
Qatar, 84, 210, 219, 233–34
supporting rebels in Syria, 94, 96, 152, 232–33
Quinn, Anthony, 26, 27, 32
Quneitra, Syria, 62–63, 79
Qusayr, Syria, 115–16, 136–37, 154, 253
Quwatli, Shukri al-, 57, 60, 246, 247
R2P. See Responsibility to Protect doctrine of UN
Rafah border crossing, 207, 208, 210
Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 156–57
Rains, Claude, 30, 55–56
Rajiha, Dawoud, 154
Ramallah, Palestine, 204
Raqqa, Syria, 116–18, 253
“Rashid, Ciwan,” 180
refugees
Iraqi refugees, 12, 78
Kurdish refugees, 167, 177, 183
Palestinian refugees, 65–66, 68, 131, 206, 209, 248
Syrian refugees, 117, 133, 138, 186, 227
religion, role of in Syrian Civil War, 16–17, 18, 137
list of groups, 243–44
“resistance front” opposing US and Israeli policies, 149. See also Hamas; Hezbollah; Iran; Syria
Resolutions. See United Nations, Security Council
Responsibility to Protect doctrine of UN (R2P), 14
how might be used in Syria, 225–26
Reuters, 96, 113, 185
Revolutionary Guard (Iran), 141, 154–55, 163, 165
helping create Hezbollah, 146, 148
Reza Shah Pahlavi (shah of Iran), 170
Rojava [Kurdish for northern region of Syria], 182
Rouhani, Hassan, 156–57, 161–62, 164, 165
Rousseff, Dilma, 218
Russia, 2, 217
aid to Middle East, 198–99, 229
Russian Revolution of 1905, 25
Russian Revolution of 1917, 33
as Soviet Union, 45
in Afghanistan, 232
aid to Middle East, 105, 106, 110, 170, 171, 229
aid to Syria, 61, 65, 228
and Kurds, 170, 171
not backing Israel against Arabs, 61, 22
8
political collapse of, 71, 228, 229
suicide bombing causing death of czar in 1881, 91
and Syria, 12, 61, 106, 152, 165, 218, 219, 228
importance of in solving civil war, 227
investing in Syrian infrastructure, 228
support for Assad, 143, 152, 224, 225, 227–30, 235, 251, 255
and Syrian chemical weapons, 13, 115, 254
UN Security Council votes on Syria by, 229, 251, 255
in World War I, 25, 245
Ruyvaran, Hossein, 148, 153, 154, 155
Rwanda intervening in Congo, 13
Saba, 186
Sabra (Palestinian refugee camp), 68
Saladin, Kurdish background of, 169
Salafist, 243
Saleh, Hassan, 181
Salman, Abdul, 17–18
Samarra, Iraq, 153
Samman, Nabil, 129
Samuel, Herbert, 35
sanctions, impact of, 124–25, 130
Sapir hospital, 159
sarin gas. See chemical weapons
Satanovsky, Yevgeny, 228
Saud family, 27
Saudi Arabia, 146, 233
Arab Spring protests in, 82
human-rights record, 215
removing ambassadors from Qatar, 234
sending aid against Soviet Union in Afghanistan, 232
supporting Syrian rebels, 16–17, 84–85, 94–96, 139, 143, 152
grand mufti's fatwa, 231–32
Saudis joining extremist groups, 230, 231, 232
Sayyidah Zaynab shrine, 152–53
SCC. See Special Coordination Committee
Schlumberger (company), 218
Scientific Studies and Research Center, 109–110, 199
Sea of Galilee and Golan negotiations, 202–203, 204
seat-belt laws in Syria as a metaphor for uprising, 19
secularism in Syria under Assads, 127, 152
secular nationalism, 79
security checkpoints, 123, 124, 125, 134, 204–206
“self-determination,” 33, 47, 54, 193
Sellstrom, Ake, 103, 104, 111
Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Lawrence), 37–38
Sevres, Treaty of (1920), 49, 169
Shaban, Bouthaina, 20, 129
Shabb, Basem, 137–38
shabiha, 140–41, 155, 241–42
Shaheen, Akba Abu, 194–95
Shariah, 92, 93, 95, 119
calls for harsh version of, 26, 97, 99, 117, 240, 253
Sharif, Omar, 32
Shatila (Palestinian refugee camp), 68
Shawkat, Assef, 154
Sherman, Wendy, 149, 158
Shia, 55, 70, 123, 151, 243
Alawites as an offshoot from, 12, 152
in control in Iran, 145
Druze splitting off from, 25
and Sayyidah Zaynab shrine, 152–53
use of discord with other faiths to control, 53, 65
See also Hezbollah
Shield (Muslim Brotherhood militia). See Commission of the Revolution's Shields
“shouting fence” in Golan, 194
shura [council], 95
Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia, 81–82, 83
Sieff, Israel, 34
SIM cards for communications, 180
“Six Day War” (June 1967), 18, 62–63, 64, 65, 66, 191–92, 193, 194, 202, 203, 247
Sleiman, Dana, 137
Slim, Randa, 232
Smadi, Tayseer al-, 84
SMC. See Supreme Military Council
SNC. See Syrian National Council
Snowden, Edward, 218
Society for Defense of the Palestinian Nation, 149
Soviet Union. See Russia
Spanish-American War, 47
Special Coordination Committee (SCC), 183
State Department (US), 213–15, 214, 216
state-of-emergency law in Syria, 21, 83
Stephen S. Weiss Temple, 192
Straits of Tiran, closing to Israelis, 62
STRATFOR (think tank), 162
Straw, Jack, 36
Suez Canal, 28–29, 34, 61, 247
Sufi, 55, 70, 244
Sukkar, Nabil, 129
Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 173
Sunni, 11–12, 18, 69, 90, 134, 146, 151, 243, 244
and Assad regime, 125, 135
growth of poverty, 130
massacre of in Baniyas district, 253
support for Assad in uprising, 123, 250
support for rebels against, 152, 230, 253
in Iraq, 98
opinions of underrepresented in King-Crane report, 45
Syria having Sunni majority, 214
use of discord with other faiths to control, 53, 65, 125
See also Ahrar al-Sham; Hamas; Jaysh al-Islam; Muslim Brotherhood
Sunoco, 42
Support Front for the People of the Levant. See Jabhat al-Nusra
Supreme Military Council (SMC), 94–95, 98, 99, 114, 118–20, 241
Suri, Abu Khalid al-, 96
Swift (company), 39
Sykes, Mark, 30–31, 32, 37
Sykes-Picot Agreement, 30, 32, 37, 245
Syria, 29
Adana Agreement, 174–75
agreeing to destroy chemical weapons, 115, 120
Assads rise to power (1947–2011), 59–80
key dates from 1966 to 2011, 247
and Britain, 113, 139
creating United Arab Republic with Egypt, 61, 247
economy under Bashar al-Assad, 130–32
changes in exchange rate after 2011, 124
privatization of state-owned businesses, 82, 128–29
ties between Iran and Syria, 149, 155–56
election in 1943 to establish independence, 57
and France, 113, 225–26
French Mandate in, 49
geopolitical importance of location of, 219, 229
Gulf War, sending troops, 149
and Hezbollah, 219
human-rights record, 215
as an independent republic, 246
key dates from 1946 to 1966, 246–47
and Iran, 145–65, 219
and Israel, 12, 84, 85, 191–212, 235
reaction to creation of State of Israel, 59–60
in “Six Day War” against Israel (June 1967), 192
lack of oil and strategic minerals, 218–19
and Lebanon, 68, 72, 76, 77, 172, 174, 206, 248, 249, 255
withdrawal of Syrian troops in 2005, 76, 249
military coups in, 61–62, 64
and Palestine, 191–212, 235
refugees in
Iraqi refugees after US invasion, 12, 78
treatment of Palestinian refugees, 65–66, 131
and Russia, 12, 61, 106, 152, 165, 218, 219, 228
investing in Syrian infrastructure, 228
support for Assad, 143
UN Security Council votes on Syria by, 229, 251, 255
suffering severe draught 2006–2011, 130
Syrian Constitution, 134, 170, 179, 181
only allowing Baathist party, 74, 75, 83, 251
requirements for president, 72, 135
Syrian nationalism, 51, 52
and Turkey, 174–75, 203, 232–33
and US, 79, 124, 146, 149, 152, 213–25, 249
opposition to US invasion of Iraq in 2003, 78
US sending helicopters into Syria in 2008, 78
western sanctions of, 124–25, 249
See also Assad, Bashar al-; Assad, Hafez al-; Syrian Civil War
Syrian Baath Party. See Baathist Party in Syria
Syrian Civil War (2011–present), 69, 90, 101–122, 123–44, 149–50
author's recommendations, 227
beginning of uprising, 81–100
deaths in
number of civilians killed, 16, 139, 141–42
number of security personnel, 16, 84
US claiming army murdered over 1,400, 113
increased interven
tion by outside groups and countries, 213–35
and Iran supporting Assad, 143, 145–65, 172
belief if Assad loses, Iran is weakened, 149–50, 219
growth in criticisms of Assad, 156–57, 164
proposing a peace plan that kept Assad, 163
key dates during, 250–55
and Palestine, 205–206, 210–11, 212
rebels carrying out targeted assassinations of Mukhabarat agents, 90
rebels gaining ground in 2012, 154
role of religion in, 151
and Russia supporting Assad
importance of in solving civil war, 227
support for Assad, 152, 224, 225, 227–30, 235, 251, 255
and Syrian chemical weapons, 13, 115, 254
and Saudi Arabia
supporting Assad, 16–17, 84, 85, 94, 95, 96, 139, 143, 152, 231–33
supporting rebels in Syria, 230, 231, 232
Syrian army laying siege to rebel-controlled areas causing civilian harm, 224–25
Syrian refugees from, 117, 133, 138, 186, 227
and Turkey supporting rebels, 94, 95, 152, 232–33
and US
calls for regime change, 79, 219–20
rebel leaders desire for US aid and support, 17–18
and rebels, 17, 84, 85, 94, 96, 114, 119, 139, 143, 221, 222–23, 233, 254
shifting policy of US during the uprising, 18, 112–15, 220–24, 233
views in US, 152, 223–24
use of something like Taif Accords to settle, 235
Syrian Communist Party, 170
Syrian National Coalition, 103
Syrian National Council (SNC), 93, 182, 213–14, 241, 250. See also National Coalition for Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
Syrian Non Violent Movement, 53
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 103
Syriatel (company), 73
Tadmur Prison, killing of political prisoners, 70, 248
Tahrir, Alawi, 81
Tahrir Square (Cairo), 85
Taif Accords, 235
takfiris [impure Muslims], 134, 152, 244
Talabani, Jalal, 172
Talq, Abdurrahman al-, 231
Talq, Mohammed al-, 231
Tammo, Mashaal, 90, 181–82
targeted assassinations
use of by Assad supporters, 90
use of by opposition, 89–90
Tariq Ahmed, Ziyaad, 108–109
Tartus, Syria, 90, 126–27, 128, 141, 228
Tayfour, Mohammad Farouk, 93
Tayi, Auda Abu, 26–27, 51
Tehran, Iran, impact of sanctions on, 158–61
Tel Al-Zaatar refugee camp, 206
Tel Aviv, Israel, 196, 199
Ten Point Pledge and Charter (Muslim Brotherhood), 92–93
terrorist organizations, 98
al-Qaeda, 174
Jabhat al-Nusra added, 97, 240, 252
Kurdistan Workers Party [Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK)], 174
Texaco (company), 218
Thomas, Lowell, 39–42
Time (magazine), 164
Tokyo subway attacks, use of sarin in, 105