by John Keay
Author’s Note To Third Edition
When I was writing this book, the ‘orientalist’ scholarship with which it is concerned came in for a savaging at the hands of Professor Edward Said (see his book Orientalism, published in 1978). Reviewing Western portrayals of, and investigations into, the Islamic Middle East, Said discerned an ignorant and disparaging commentary prompted by acquisitive and self-serving motives. This pejorative aspect of ‘orientalism’ has since been enforced by his numerous disciples and critics. India Discovered is, however, quite innocent of it. Most of the text was written before Said’s great work appeared, and I doubt whether I would have written it differently had it been otherwise.
India is not like the Middle East and its colonial exposure was of a different order. For every act of vandalism there were several of conservation, and for every paragraph of orientalist disparagement there was a page of wide-eyed wonder. Both are frankly represented in the text which follows. On balance, though, I believe that to the scholars of the Raj, India’s heritage came to represent not some antithetical ‘other’ to be denigrated and marginalized but a spectacular survival with which they were anxious and proud to be associated, a jewel, indeed, in the crown. Of course such studies gratified the imperialist mind-set. No scholarship is entirely disinterested, be it orientalist or a critique of the same.
Just as the intellectual climate has changed, so has my own perspective. Since this book was written I have learned much more about Indian history. The jaunty assertion in the Introduction that India’s early history is devoid of the personalities and anecdotes which make the past palatable cannot go unchallenged. As the author of a recent work replete with just such detail (India: A History), I stand severely self-corrected. There are other generalizations which, were I writing this book today, I would avoid, although they scarcely detract from what is essentially an account of eighteenth-nineteenth century enquiry. And there are instances, particularly in respect of Harappan studies (Chapter 12), where the pace of current research means that anything in print is already out of date.
The book originally appeared under the same title but in a large format with many colour illustrations. This smaller format makes for more manageable reading and the new illustrations convey a greater sense of period. They were collected by Joy Law, to whom I am most grateful.
Argyll, January 2001
Sources and Bibliography
In a book of this nature it seemed inappropriate to burden the text with references and notes. The sources quoted at length are, in any case, generally self evident from the context. Likewise, the publications listed below no more represent an exhaustive bibliography of the subject than they do the extent of my own reading. They are simply those which have been found most relevant. In particular I should like to single out the journals of the various Asiatic Societies – especially those of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta). They are the fields whence this story has been garnered. (Except where otherwise stated the place of publication is London).
PRIMARY SOURCES
Blanford, W. T., Fauna of British India – Mammalia, 1888–91
Brown, P., Indian Architecture, Bombay, n.d.
Buchanan, F., Journey through Mysore etc., 1807
Buchanan, F., (ed. M. Martin), Eastern India, 1836
Cole, H. H., Preservation of National Monuments, vols I-X, Calcutta, 1881–85
Coomaraswamy, A. K., Indian and Indonesian Art, 1927
Cumming, J. (ed.), Revealing India’s Past, 1934
Cunningham, A. C., Archaeological Surveys of India, vols I-XXIII, Calcutta, 1981–87
Cunningham, A. C., The Bhilsa Topes, 1854
Cunningham, A. C., Inscriptions of Ashoka, 1877
Cunningham A. C., The Stupa of Bharhut, 1879
Cunningham, A. C., Maha-Bodhi, 1892
Daniell, T., Views of Taj Mahal, 1789
Fergusson, J., Rock-cut Temples of Western India (second ed.), 1864
Fergusson, J., Tree and Serpent Worship (second ed.), 1873
Fergusson, J., A History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (second ed.), 1897
Fergusson, J. and Burgess, J., Cave Temples of India, 1880
Foster, W. (ed.), Early Travels in India, 1921
Havell, E. B., Havell Papers in India Office Library and Records
Havell, E. B., Indian Sculpture and Painting, 1908
Havell, E. B., Indian Architecture, 1913
Havell, E. B., Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, 1915
Hooker, J. D. and Thomson, T., Flora Indica, 1855
Hunter, W. W., Life of B. H. Hodgson, 1896
Huxley, L., Life and Letters of Sir J. D. Hooker, 1918
Jerdon, T. C., Mammals of India, Roorkee, 1867
Jones, Sir W., Letters of Sir William Jones (ed. G. Cannon), 1970
Keene, H. G., A Handbook to Delhi, 1899
Macaulay, T. B., Minute on Education, 2 February 1835
Macaulay, T. B., Speech on the Gates of Somnath, 9 March 1843
Markham, C., Memoir of the Indian Surveys (second ed.), 1878
Marshall, J. (ed. S. A. Khan), John Marshall in India, 1927
Marshall, J. H., The Monuments of Sanchi, 1931
Marshall, J. H., Mohenjo Daro and the Indus Civilization, 1931
Marshall, J. H., Buddhist Art of Gandhara, 1960
Mitra, R. L., et al, Centenary Review of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1885
Phillimore, R. H., Historical Records of the Survey of India, vols I–V, 1945–65
Prinsep, J. (ed. E. Thomas), Essays on Indian Antiquities, 1858
Rapson, E. J. (ed.), Cambridge History of India, vol I, 1922
Tod, J., Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, 1829
Tod, J., Travels in Western India, 1839
Wilson, H. H., Ariana Antiqua, 1841
Wheeler, M., My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan, 1976
Wheeler, M., Civilization of the Indus Valley and Beyond, 1961
PERIODICALS
Asiatic Researches, vols I-XX, 1788–1839
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vols I-X, 1831–41
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society vols 1–5, 1829–33
Transactions of the Bombay Literary Society, vols 1—11, 1819–20
Archer, M., ‘Forgotten Painter of the Picturesque; Henry Salt’, Country Life, 19 November 1959
Archer, M., ‘India and Natural History’, History Today, November 1959
Archer, M., ‘India and Archaeology’, History Today, April 1962
Archer, M., ‘Indian Miniatures’, Art International, 5 December 1963
Archer, M., ‘An Artist Engineer; Col. Robert Smith’, The Connoisseur, February 1972
Marshall, J. H., ‘The Cradle of Indian Art – Ajanta’, Illustrated London News, 11 September 1923
Marshall, J. H., ‘First Light on a Long Forgotten Civilization’, Illustrated London News, 20 September 1924
Marshall, J. H., ‘Unveiling the Prehistoric Civilization of India’, Illustrated London News, 27 February 1926
Havell, E. B., Obituary in The Times, 1 January 1935
TRAVELOGUES AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND
Atkinson, G. F., Curry and Rice, 1858
Busteed, H. E., Echoes of Old Calcutta, 1908
Eden, Emily, Up the Country, 1830
Eden, Emily and Fanny, Letters from India, 1872
Fay, Eliza, Original Letters from India, 1925
Heber, R., Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India, 1828
Hickey, W. (ed. P. Quennell), Memoirs of William Hickey, 1960
Hodges, W., Travels in India, 1780–83, 1793
Jacquemont, V. V. J., Letters from India, 1834
Kincaid, D., British Social Life in India, 1608–1933 (seconded.), 1973
Murray’s Handbook to the Bengal Presidency, 1882
Murray’s Handbook to India, 1894
Murray’s Handbook to India etc, 1975
Postans, Mrs M., Western India in 1838,
1859
Roberts, Emma, Sketches and Characteristics of Hindostan (second ed.), 1837
Valentia, G. A., Voyages and Travels, 1809
SECONDARY SOURCES
Arberry, A. J., The British Orientalists, 1943
Arberry, A. J., Asiatic Jones, 1946
Archer, M., Indian Architecture and the British, 1968
Archer, M., Company Drawings in the India Office Library, 1972
Archer, W. G., India and Modern Art, 1959
Basham, A. L., The Wonder that was India, 1954
Basham, A. L. (ed.), A Cultural History of India, 1975
Blunt, W., The Ark in the Park, 1976
Cannon, G., Oriental Jones, New York, 1964
Carrington, R., Elephants, 1958
Carroll, D., The Taj Mahal, New York, 1972
Craven, R., Concise History of Indian Art, 1972
Crowe, S., et al, Gardens of Moghul India, 1972
Dictionary of Indian Biography (ed. Buckland) Dictionary of National Biography Gascoigne, A. B., The Great Moghuls, 1971
Griffiths, P., History of the Indian Tea Industry, 1967
Hawkes, J., The First Great Civilizations, 1973
Keay, J., When Men and Mountains Meet, 1977
Keay, J., The Gilgit Game, 1979
Kopf, D., British Orientalism and the Bengali Renaissance, Los Angeles, 1969
Lipsey, R., Coomaraswamy, His Life and Work, 1977
Markham, C., Peruvian Bark, 1880
Marshall, P. J. (ed.), The British Discovery of Hinduism etc, 1970
Mason, P., The Men Who Ruled India, 1954
Mason, P., A Matter of Honour, 1974
Mukherjee, S. N., Sir William Jones, 1968
Narain, V. A., Jonathan Duncan and Varanasi, Calcutta, 1959
Philips, C. H., (ed.), Historians of India, Pakistan and Ceylon, 1961
Rowland, B., Art and Architecture of India, 1967
Sewell, R., A Forgotten Empire, 1900
Sharma, R. C., Mathura Museum of Art, Mathura, 1967
Singh, Madanjeet, The Cave Paintings of Ajanta, 1965
Spear, P., Twilight of the Moghuls, 1951
Spear, P., The Nabobs, 1963
Index
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Abu, Mount, 40, 146, 196–8
Afghanistan, 68, 69, 87, 88–9, 111
Agra, 22, 39, 40, 125, 126–7, 133, 142–4, 147
Agra, Red Fort, 142, 144, see also Taj, Itimad-ud-Daula
Ahmedabad, 146
Ajanta, 14, 42, 48, 148–58, 161, 162
Akbar, emperor, 125, 133, 147
Alexander the Great, 15, 33, 35–6, 43, 44, 87
Alexander, Lieut. J., 148–50, 205
Allahabad, 47, 49, 51, 57, 82, 116, 141–2
Amaravati, stupa, 114, 180
Amber, palace, 129–30, 195
Amherst, Lord, Gov.-Gen., 143
Anhilwara, 196
Archaeological Dept., 145–7, 166
Archaeological Survey of India, 80–4, 96, 98, 103, 114, 124
Aryans, 24, 30, 31, 116, 164, 174
Ashoka Brahmi (script), 44–5, 48–9, 51–3, 55–61, 84, 164, 165–6
Ashoka, emperor, 53–63, 67, 71, 74
Ashoka pillars, 43–57, 72, 91, 115
Ashoka rock inscriptions, 57–63, 90, 196
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 26–7, 30, 35, 37–8, 42, 44, 47, 48–9, 52–3, 88, 145, 151, 175, 203, 204, 210–11
Auckland, Lord, Gov.-Gen., 75
Aurangzeb, emperor, 125
Babur, emperor, 129, 140
Bactria, 87–8, 90, 93, 94
Bagh, 42, 156, 157, 176
Baluchistan, 168, 174
Banerji, R. D., 166–7
Banks, Sir J., 209
Begram, 88–9, 210
Belur, 118, 119, 178
Benares, 29, 45, 47, 55, 70, 82, 116
Bentinck, Lord, Gov.-Gen., 144, 181
Besnagar, 91
Bhagavad Gita, 25, 28, 95
Bharhut, stupa, 83–4, 85, 91
Bhilwara, 194
Bhopal, 51, 64, 79, 85
Bhuvaneswar, 120–1, 146
Bihar, 43, 44, 49, 57, 67, 81, 181
Bijapur, 127, 128, 146
Bird, Dr J., 153
Birdwood, Sir G., 159–60
Bir Singh Deo, 130
Blanford, W. T., 205, 206
Blyth, Edward, 204–5
Boddh Gaya, 67, 81–2, 122
Bombay, 22, 40, 41, 169
Boriah, K. V., 180–1
Broach, 40
Buchanan, Dr F. V., 67, 177–9, 190, 202, 205, 207
Buddal, pillar, 44
Buddhism, 42, 53, 62, 64–97, 116, 122–3, 153, 163, 199, 210
Burhanpur, 146
Burt, T. S., 47, 98–101, 109
Calcutta, 19–23, 38, 39, 40, 50, 52, 61, 84, 105, 108, 186, 188, 207
Canning, Lord, Gov.-Gen., 80, 81, 98
Cautley, Capt., 51
Carey, Wm., 202, 207
Cecconi, Prof., 154
Ceylon, 53, 66
Chambers, Wm., 42, 66–7
Chandigarh, 169
Chandragupta, Gupta emperor, 47
Chandragupta Maurya, emperor, 35–6, 47, 53–4, 73
Chitor, 193–5
Chunar, 55
Clive, Lord Robert, 20, 21, 23
Cole, H. H., 85, 86, 94, 96, 138, 139–41, 142
Colebrooke, H. T., 38, 190
Connolly, Lieut., A., 51
Coomaraswamy, A. K., 159, 160–2, 172, 179
Coryat, Thomas, 43, 44, 176
Cunningham, Sir Alexander, 51, 52, 57, 70–84, 89, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, 101, 113, 114, 121–2, 125, 129, 135, 164–6, 176
Cunningham, Joseph, 79, 198
Curzon, Lord, Viceroy, 14, 82, 105, 138, 142, 145–7, 206
Dangerfield, F., 176
Daniell, Thomas, 21, 40, 117, 143
Darjeeling, 198, 200
Datia, palace, 130, 161
Dehra Dun, 188, 189
Delhi, 39, 40, 43, 46, 49, 55, 56, 82, 102, 116, 123–6, 130, 132, 133–9, 146, 169
Delhi Red Fort, 40, 133, 136–9, 146–7, see also Qutb, Tughlakabad, etc.
Devanagari, script, 44–5, 61
Dhar, 146
Dhauli, 58, 59–60
Dig, 112, 130, 208
Dinwiddie, Dr, 184
Dravidians, 117–8
East India Company, 21, 25, 39, 80, 194, 202, 206
Eden, The Hon. Emily, 75–6
Elephanta, 40–1, 42, 149
Ellenborough, Lord, Gov.-Gen., Ill
Ellora, 42, 45, 149, 161
Erskine, Wm., 42
Everest, Mount, 191
Everest, Sir George, 186–9
Fa Hsien, 73, 74, 93, 102
Fatehpur Sikri, 40, 125
Fell, Capt. E., 64–6
Fergusson, James, 94–6, 112–30, 138, 140, 142, 144, 153, 176, 178–9
Feroz Shah, Sultan, 56
Forster, George, 156
Francis, Sir Philip, 22
Franklin, James, 98, 176
Gandhara, 92–7, 104, 105
Ganges R., 29, 36
Garhwal, 191
Gaur, 29, 127, 128, 146
Gaya, 29, 45, 46
Gill, Maj. Robert, 153–4
Gir, 206
Girnar, 58–9, 60–1, 78, 196
Great Trigonometrical Series, 182–91
Greek influences, 33, 35–6, 42, 43, 48, 86–97, 171–2
Gresley, Capt., 151–3, 161
Griffiths, John, 154
Gujerat, 127–8, 192
Gupta Brahmi, script, 44, 46, 50, 71
Gupta empire, 73, 89, 91, 153, 162
Gurkhas, 39, 191, 200
Gwalior, 22, 79, 129–30, 139–41, 146, 193, 196
Halebid, 118, 119–20, 177
Halhe
d, Nathaniel, 24, 29
Harappa, 165, 166, 167, 170, 171–2, 174
Harrington, J., 45
Harsha, King, 73
Hastings, Warren, Gov.-Gen., 22, 23, 24, 25, 45, 76
Havell, Ernest, 96, 105–9, 116, 121–3, 125–30, 146, 155–60, 172
Heber, Bishop R., 40, 112, 133, 134, 135, 143–4, 192, 194, 209
Hickey, Wm., 19
Himalayas, 39, 188–91, 198, 200
Hodges, Wm., 22, 40, 143
Hodgson, B. H., 48, 55, 57, 67–9, 182, 198–200, 201–4, 208, 209, 210
Hooker, Sir J. D., 207, 208
Hsuan Tsang, 73, 74, 80–1, 122, 165
Hughli, R., 21, 34
Humayun, emperor, 126, 132, 147
Hyderabad, 148, 154, 179, 186
Indian Mutiny, 80, 136–7, 138, 140
Indus Valley civilization, 165–74
Islamic influences, 112, 122–8, 156
Itimad-ud-Daula, tomb of, 142, 147
Jainism, 66, 102, 116, 124, 127, 140, 146, 161, 178–9, 182, 196–8
Jaipur, 193, 195
Jehangir, emperor, 139, 146, 147, 158
Jerdon, Dr T. C., 205–6
Jodhpur, 129–30, 193, 195
Jogeshwar, 41
Jones, Sir John, 138
Jones, Sir William, 19–38, 39, 45, 46, 50, 66, 75, 103, 175, 190, 202, 203, 206
Kalidasa, 32–3, 48, 91
Kanchipuram, 117, 146
Kanheri, 41, 42
Kanishka, King, 94, 104
Karli, 42, 43
Kashmir, 39, 78, 91, 208
Kathmandu, 48, 67, 199–200
Keith, Maj., 141
Khajuraho, 14, 40, 81, 98–101, 108, 109, 120–1, 146, 176
Kharosthi, script, 90, 91, 164
Khizrabad, 56
Khyber Pass, 62
Kincaid, Gen., 86
Kipling, R., 144