an empire to his sons, was a shortage of wood. The construction of a large war
influenced the way in which European, Middle Eastern, and Asian societies lived,
fleet, and the growing hostility between Cairo and Istanbul, greatly reduced the
thought, and ate. For example, the eruption of a volcano in Iceland in the early
amount of firewood that Egypt could import from other provinces in the empire,
1880s severely damaged agricultural yield throughout Europe, and led to the
such as Syria and Mount Lebanon. Similar to other parts of the region, bakeries
rise of bread prices throughout the continent. It also gave rise to false rumors
were one of the sectors most dependent on wood for fuel, second only to public
about a French queen who sent her starving subjects to eat cakes, leading up
bathhouses. One of the motives for making the journey to Syria was to take over
to the French Revolution. At the turn of the eighteenth century, a young and
a region rich in wood to be used for construction and heating.
ambitious French officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, was sent to spread the values of
the revolution to Egypt. A few years later, Muhammad Ali, an equally ambitious
The journey to Syria was the first time in the modern era that an army was
Ottoman officer sent by the sultan to expel the French invaders, sought to
comprised of indigenous Egyptians, whose commanders were forced to consider
establish a new army based on the same model of the French force he met on
their culinary preferences. Moreover, the journey took place during a period of
the battlefield. A regular and modern army, he thought, would enable him to
scarcity of basic commodities such as bread and fava beans, as well as a decrease
liberate himself from Istanbul, and establish an independent dynasty in Egypt,
in animal protein as a result of several decades of epidemics that wrought havoc
whose rule he could then pass on to his sons.
on farm animals. We do not know this for sure, but it seems that when the
Egyptian soldiers crossed Ottoman Palestine towards Syria, and since they did
In order to finance his modern army, Muhammad Ali began to reduce wheat
not find any fava beans there, they began to use the local raw ingredient, the
production in Egypt as well as the growth of local vegetables and beans, such as
chickpea, in order to prepare ta’amiya. Thus, falafel as we know it was born.
the fava bean, and instead al ocate land and manpower for marketable crops such
as long-fiber cotton, tobacco, and sugar. Agriculture, based on crops that cannot
The four decades in which Muhammad Ali ruled were a period of far-reaching
be consumed directly but rather sold at a large profit, was intended to provide
changes and inventions in many arenas, earning him the title of “Father of
the cash for the purchase of uniforms and ammunition, to build barracks, and
Modern Egypt.” These innovations also included culinary transformations, such
to pay salaries to cadres of educated officers, some of whom were European, in
as drinking tea sweetened with sugar, and smoking cigarettes, a practice that was
order to train the fighting force. Perhaps the most dramatic innovation was the
apparently born during the same trip to Syria, due to the absence of hookahs
identity of the soldiers recruited into the new army.
and other smoking apparatuses. It is quite possible that falafel was also one of
these innovations. By inverting the saying “an army marches on its stomach,”
In contrast to the Ottoman Empire’s method of enlisting fighters from distant
it can also be argued that sometimes the stomach marches in a military parade:
regions, and following the failed attempt to recruit Sudanese slaves, the new
Throughout the history of war, occupation and siege have repeatedly provided
Egyptian army was the first army to train and arm local Egyptian peasants. A
opportunities for the creation of new foods. It is no coincidence that falafel is at
possible source of inspiration for this innovative move was Napoleon himself,
the heart of a passionate conflict during the twenty-first century – it must have
who first introduced the principle of general recruitment, and whose many
also been born in a similar conflict some two hundred years ago.
officers stayed behind to command the new Egyptian army.
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The food born from this encounter, falafel, encapsulates within it the local and
the imperial, imported cooking techniques and local raw ingredients, violence
and nutrition, politics and cuisine, human culture and physical environment.
The person who seeks the meeting point between environment and culture, or
past and present, can begin by looking at his or her own plate. The movement
of people, ideas, plants, animals, and cooking traditions are, in many cases,
intertwined. Over the past few years, more and more people have become
increasingly aware of the food on their plates, the circumstances under which it
was produced, as well as the health, moral, environmental, and social implications
of its growth and consumption. Is there a reason for taking an interest in the
historical circumstances of our food? We have seen how the croissant is made
up of Ottoman, Viennese, and French elements, how baklava reveals French
lamination, and how falafel has its roots in Egypt: Yesterday’s fusion food is
today’s authentic cuisine. Similar to the food we eat, our roots and authenticity
also have varied global sources. Recognition, and perhaps even a celebration, of
this complexity, as well as the identification and resistance to the mechanisms
that seek to erase it, are the beginning of an awareness of our position as part
of a rich and colorful tapestry.
Dr. On Barak is a Senior Lecturer in History at the Department of Middle Eastern and African
History at Tel Aviv University. He is a historian of the modern Middle East, specializing in the
introduction of science and technology into non-Western settings. He is also the author of
several books, including On Time: Technology and Temporality in Modern Egypt.
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T A ’ A M I Y A F A V A B E A N F A L A F E L
Ta’amiya, Egypt’s falafel balls, are made from split white fava beans, which have been dried, cracked,
and have had their skins removed. White fava beans are the same as brown, but without the skin.
For this recipe, it is essential to use this variety, as whole fava beans are not suitable. Look for split
white fava beans in specialty stores that sell Middle Eastern ingredients. Recipe by Claudia Roden
Makes 60 balls
1. Place the fava beans in a large bowl. Add water to
cover by at least 2 inches (5 centimeters), add the
2½ cups (500 grams) split small dried white
baking soda and soak for a minimum of 6 hours.
fava beans
½ teaspoon baking soda
2. Drain the fava beans. Use a meat grinder to grind
½ cup cilantro, chopped
the beans, cilantro, and onion to a crumbly mixture.
1 medium onion, coarsely chopped
Alternatively, use a food processor fitted with a steel
1½ teaspoons salt
blade to grind in several batches, if necessary.
1 teaspoon ground cumin
½ teaspoon ground black pepper
3. Stir the spices and baking powder into the bean
½ teaspoon hot paprika
mixture. If using a food processor, add the spices
½ teaspoon sweet paprika
and baking powder and process 1 to 2 minutes
½ teaspoon granulated garlic
more. The mixture should be moist enough to hold
1 tablespoon baking powder or self-rising flour
its shape when rolled into a ball. If the mixture is
Oil, for frying
too dry, add 1 to 2 tablespoons of water.
To Serve
4. Heat 2 inches (5 centimeters) of oil in a deep
Tahini Sauce (page 281)
saucepan over a medium heat to 350°F (180°C).
Pita Pockets (page 124)
Chopped Vegetable Salad (page 280)
5. Using a falafel spoon or a small ice-cream scoop,
Pickled Carrots and Cabbage (page 190)
divide the mixture into balls the size of a walnut
and lightly press to flatten. Fry the falafel balls,
Tip
6 to 7 at a time until golden brown, 2 to 3 minutes.
Make sure the temperature of the oil remains
Transfer to a colander or a paper-towel-lined baking
constant, so that the falafel balls are perfectly
sheet to remove excess oil.
cooked inside and crispy on the outside.
6. Serve warm on a platter with tahini sauce, or stuffed
into a pita pocket with chopped vegetable salad,
pickles, and a drizzle of tahini sauce.
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K O S H A R Y C H I C K P E A S , L E N T I L S , A N D R I C E
W I T H S P I C Y T O M A T O S A U C E
One of the most popular and beloved street foods in Egypt, koshary is a satisfying, multilayered dish.
The hot sauce is served on the side, so the koshary can be seasoned according to any desired level of spiciness.
Serves 4 to 6
1. Prepare the tomato sauce: Heat the olive oil in a
large saucepan over medium heat. Add the onion
For the Tomato Sauce
and sauté until softened, about 4 minutes. Add the
2 tablespoons olive oil
garlic and tomatoes, stir well and cook until the
1 medium onion, chopped
tomatoes start to break down, about 10 minutes.
2 garlic cloves, chopped
Add the tomato paste and water, season with salt
2½ pounds (1.1 kilograms) ripe tomatoes (6 to 7
and pepper and cook 5 minutes more. Using an
tomatoes), peeled and chopped
immersion blender, purée the sauce.
1 teaspoon tomato paste
½ cup water
2. Prepare the onions: Heat the olive oil in a large
Salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
saucepan over medium heat. Add the sliced onions
and cook, stirring occasionally, until golden brown,
For the Onions
about 30 minutes. Using a slotted spoon, remove
¼ cup olive oil
the onions from the pan and spread over paper
4 medium onions, thinly sliced
towel to drain excess oil. Let cool.
2 cups (500 grams) Cooked Chickpeas for Salads
and Stews (pages 176-7)
3. Prepare the rice and noodles: Add the olive oil to
1 cup (250 grams) black or green lentils, cooked
the same pan used for frying the onions (the oil
according to package directions (optional)
used for the onions should still be in the pan). Add
the rice and noodles. Stir well to coat. Cook over
For the Rice and Noodles
medium heat until golden, 10 to 15 minutes. Add
¼ cup olive oil
the salt and cumin and stir well. Pour in the boiling
2 cups (400 grams) round rice
water, cover the saucepan, and bring to a boil.
150 grams vermicelli noodles
Reduce heat to low and simmer until the rice and
1½ teaspoons sea salt
noodles have absorbed the water, about 18 minutes.
1 teaspoon ground cumin
3 cups (720 milliliters) boiling water
4. Prepare the hot sauce: Place all the ingredients in
a bowl, and season with salt and pepper. Add 2
For the Hot Sauce
tablespoons of the prepared tomato sauce; stir well.
3 garlic cloves, minced
1 tablespoon paprika
5. To serve, spread the rice and noodles in an even
½ to 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper
layer on a large platter. Ladle the tomato sauce on
1 teaspoon cumin
top, followed by a layer of chickpeas and a layer
1 teaspoon dried cilantro
of lentils, if using. Scatter the onions on top and
Salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
drizzle on hot sauce, to taste. Serve immediately.
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F E R A K H B E L H U M M U S C H I C K E N A N D C H I C K P E A
C A S S E R O L E
This is one of the dishes that my mom used to cook for my children, and now they cook it
for their children, too. Recipe by Claudia Roden
Serves 4
1. Heat the olive oil in a large Dutch oven over
medium heat. Add the chopped onion and sauté
3 tablespoons olive oil
until soft, about 4 minutes. Add the garlic, ginger,
1 large onion, chopped
and turmeric. Cook, stirring, until fragrant, about
2 garlic cloves, chopped
2 minutes.
1 teaspoon ground ginger
1 teaspoon turmeric
2. Add the chicken pieces skin-side down and sear.
One 3-pound chicken, cut into eight pieces
When the skin is golden brown, after 3 to 5
3 cups (750 grams) Cooked Chickpeas for Salads
minutes, flip and repeat on the other side.
and Stews (pages 176-7)
3 cardamom pods, cracked
3. Add the chickpeas, cardamom, lemon juice and zest,
Juice and zest of 1 lemon
salt, and white pepper, and stir well. Pour enough
1 teaspoon sea salt, or less if using chicken stock
chicken stock or water into the Dutch oven to
½ teaspoon freshly ground white pepper
almost cover the chicken, about 3 cups, and bring
3 cups (720 milliliters) chicken stock or water
to a boil. Reduce heat to low, cover and cook for
1 hour. Taste and adjust seasoning if needed.
To Serve
Cooked white rice
4. Serve hot with cooked white rice.
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H A L A B E S S A T O M A T O - C H I C K P E A S O U P
Tomatoes provide a fruity aroma while chickpeas offer richness and depth to this filling soup, which
balances substance and freshness. Serve with a slice of good rustic bread or fresh pita, for dipping.
Serves 4 to 6
1. Heat ¼ cup of the olive oil in a large saucepan over
medium heat. Add the chopped onion, celery,
½ cup olive oil (120 milliliters)
carrots, bay leaf, and allspice, and fry until golden,
1 medium onion, chopped
about 5 minutes. Add the chopped garlic and chile
2 stalks celery, chopped
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pepper, stir to coat. Add the chopped tomatoes with
1 carrot, coarsely chopped
the remaining ¼ cup olive oil and stir well. Partially
1 bay leaf
cover and cook for 30 minutes, stirring occasionally.
2 allspice berries
3 garlic cloves, coarsely chopped
2. Add the herbs, 3 cups of the chickpeas, and the
¼ to ½ green chile pepper, such as serrano
chickpea cooking liquid. Season with salt and
4½ pounds (2 kilograms) ripe tomatoes (8 to 10
pepper and bring to a boil. Reduce heat to low and
tomatoes), peeled and chopped
cook until flavors are melded, about 20 minutes.
4 sprigs of parsley, stems attached
2 sprigs of thyme, stems attached
3. Remove the bay leaf, allspice, and chile pepper
1 sprig of rosemary, stem attached
(if you prefer it less spicy). Use an immersion
1 sprig of sage, stem attached
blender to purée the soup to a smooth, velvety
4 cups (1 kilogram) Cooked Chickpeas for Salads
texture. Adjust seasoning to taste.
and Stews (pages 176-7), plus 4¼ cups (1 liter)
chickpea cooking liquid
4. Divide the soup among serving bowls, top with the
Sea salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
remaining 1 cup of chickpeas and chopped parsley.
Serve immediately.
Chopped parsley, for garnish
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D U K K A H C R A C K E R S
Dukkah is an Egyptian spice mix made up of peanuts or hazelnuts, sesame seeds, cumin seeds,
coriander, salt, and black pepper. Egyptians enjoy pressing a piece of pita drenched in olive
oil into the spice mix. This recipe takes that habit one step further, incorporating the nutty,
flavorful spice mix into crunchy, savory crackers.
Makes about 3 dozen crackers
1. Preheat the oven to 350°F (180°C).
1 cup (125 grams) whole wheat flour
2. Place the flours, salt, sesame seeds, and dukkah in
1 cup (90 grams) chickpea flour
the bowl of a stand mixer and mix well. Add the
½ teaspoon salt
water and oil and mix until a soft, sticky dough is
½ cup (70 grams) sesame seeds, plus 2 tablespoons
formed, about 3 minutes. If the dough is too dry,
for sprinkling
add 1 to 2 tablespoons of water.
3 tablespoons store-bought or homemade
Dukkah Spice Mix (see below)
Ariel Rosenthal, Orly Peli-Bronshtein, Dan Alexander Page 3