3. F. Loeffler and P. Frosch, Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. 28 (1898): 371. Cited as reference 13 in Lustig and Levine, “One Hundred Years of Virology.”
4. Edward Rybicki, A Short History of the Discovery of Viruses (Buglet Press e-book, 2015), 6. This book is available for purchase at https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/short-history-discovery-viruses/id1001627125?mt=13. Part one is also freely available here: https://ry bicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/06/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-1/. And part 2 is here: https://rybicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/07/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-2/
5. F. Loeffler and P. Frosch, “Summarischer Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen der Kommission zur Erforschung der Maul- und Klauenseuche bei dem Institut fu$ r Infektionskrankheiten in Berlin,” Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, Abt. I 22 (1897): 257–59. Loeffler and Frosch’s achievement is also described in Rudolf Rott and Stuart Siddell, “One Hundred Years of Animal Virology,” Journal of General Virology 79 (1998): 2871–72, http://jgv.microbiologyresearch.org/con tent/journal/jgv/10.1099/0022-1317-79-11-2871?crawler=true&mimetype=applica tion/pdf.
6. Thomas M. Rivers, “Filterable Viruses: A Critical Review,” Journal of Bacteriology xiv, no. 4 (1927): 228.
7. Thomas M. Rivers, ed., Filterable Viruses (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1928), 1–418.
8. Albert B. Sabin and Peter K. Olitsky, “Cultivation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Vitro in Human Embryonic Nervous Tissue,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 34 (1936): 357–59.
9. Rachel Benson Gold, “Lessons from Before Roe: Will Past Be Prologue?” Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6 (2003): 8–11, www.guttmacher.org/about/gpr/2003/03/lessons-roe-will-past-be-prologue; Rosemary Nossif, Before Roe: Abortion Policy in the States (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), 33–35.
10. Carole R. McCann, “Abortion,” in The Oxford Companion to United States History, ed. Paul S. Boyer (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 3; Henry J. Sangmeister, “A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46 (1943): 757–58.
11. John F. Enders, Thomas H. Weller, and Frederick C. Robbins, “Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues,” Science 109 (1949): 85–87.
12. Saul Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science: An Oral History Memoir Prepared by Saul Benison (Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 1967), 446.
13. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
14. Leonard Hayflick, “Early Days at Merck,” Web of Stories, July, 2011, www.webofstories.com/play/leonard.hayflick/13.
15. Ruth Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, September 29, 2014.
16. Wistar Institute, “Our History,” www.wistar.org/the-institute/our-history (accessed June 7, 2016).
17. Leonard Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology” (unpublished manuscript, March 25, 2014), 25, 40, 60; Erik Larson, The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America (New York: Random House, 2003).
18. Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute” 2, 47, 61, 78, 79; Paul Offit, Vaccinated: One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 79–80.
19. Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 106–12.
20. Ibid., 111.
21. Ibid., 101.
22. Leonard Hayflick, interview.
23. Leonard Hayflick, “The Growth of Human and Poultry Pleuropneumonia-like Organisms in Tissue Cultures and in Ovo and the Characterization of an Infectious Agent Causing Tendovaginitis with Arthritis in Chickens” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1956).
24. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 3, 2013.
Chapter Three: The Wistar Reborn
1. Maurice Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit, Nov. 30, 2004, audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
2. Barbara Cohen, interview with the author, November 20, 2014.
3. John Rowan Wilson, Margin of Safety (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963), 140.
4. Ursula Roth, eighty-fifth-birthday tribute to Hilary Koprowski, 2001. Courtesy of Sue Jones.
5. The Belgian virologist Lise Thiry related this tale in a written tribute for a book of memories compiled to celebrate Hilary Koprowski’s eighty-fifth birthday in 2001. Thiry’s recollections were provided courtesy of Sue Jones, Koprowski’s former assistant.
6. Minutes of Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting, February 24, 1967, page 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12 (Wistar Institute 1966–67), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Trustee Minutes, vol. 26, page 313, collection no. UPA 1.1, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Vittorio Defendi, interview with the author, March 18, 2014.
7. Peter Doherty, telephone interview with the author, January 20, 2015.
8. Michael Katz, “A Devotion to ‘Real Science,’” in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski’s Achievements,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 212, Supplement 1 (2015): S6.
9. Stacey Burling, “Hilary Koprowski, Polio Vaccine Pioneer, Dead at 96,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 14, 2013, http://articles.philly.com/2013-04-15/news/38559037_1_polio-vaccine-hilary-koprowski-rabies-vaccine.
10. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 5.
11. Bob Gallo, “Lessons from a World Trip,” in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski’s Achievements,” S6.
12. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 111.
13. I. S. Ravdin to Jonathan Rhoads, January 27, 1960, UPT 50 R252, box 65, file folder 56 (Wistar Institute, 1959–1961), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
14. “Draft of Minutes of Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Board of Managers of the Wistar Institute,” September 21 1960, and I. S. Ravdin, “Memo,” December 15, 1960, both in UPC 1.4 , box 6, file folder “Wistar Institute Board of Managers,” Vice President for Medical Affairs Correspondence and Records, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; I. S. Ravdin to Francis Boyer, July 1, 1960, UPT 50 R252, box 65, file folder 56 (Wistar Institute, 1959–1961), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Committee on the Wistar Institute to President Gaylord P. Harnwell, November 17, 1959, p. 3, UPA4, box 114, file folder 24 (Goddard Report: Committee on the Wistar Institute 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Tentative Minutes, Wistar Executive Committee, 11/18/59,” pp. 2–3, UPA4, box 114, file folder 17 (Wistar Institute IV: 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; correspondence among Joseph Stokes Jr., Hilary Koprowski, Jonathan E. Rhoads, Albert Linton, and I. S. Ravdin, January 20, 1960, through February 22, 1960, call no. B.St65p, file folder “Koprowski, Hilary #2,” Joseph Stokes Papers Series I, American Philosophical Society Archives.
15. “Resolution by the Senior Members of the Scientific Staff of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, to Be Forwarded to the President and Board of Managers,” December 30, 1959, UPA4, box 114, file folder 17 (Wistar Institute IV: 1955–1960), Office of the President, Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
16. Much of the biographical information in this section is rendered in lively detail in Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 17–40; this section also draws on this enga
ging memoir by Hilary Koprowski’s wife: Irena Koprowska, A Woman Wanders Through Life and Science (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997), 38–122; Christopher Koprowski, e-mail to the author, October 15, 2013.
17. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 42, 67.
18. Ibid., 44.
19. David M. Oshinsky, Polio: An American Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 138–42.
20. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 1–2.
21. Hilary Koprowski, Thomas W. Norton, and Walsh McDermott, “Isolation of Poliomyelitis Virus from Human Serum by Direct Inoculation into a Laboratory Mouse,” Public Health Reports 62, no. 41 (1947): 1467–76.
22. Hilary Koprowski, George A. Jervis, and Thomas W. Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers upon Oral Administration of a Rodent-Adapted Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus,” American Journal of Hygiene 55 (1952): 109.
23. Oshinsky, Polio, 135.
24. Hilary Koprowski, “A Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture, ‘Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus,’ at the Medical School of the Hershey Medical Center, June 18, 1980,” in Koprowska, A Woman Wanders, 298.
25. James W. Trent Jr., Inventing the Feeble Mind: A History of Mental Retardation in the United States (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1994), Kindle e-book, location 3312 of 5061.
26. Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Committee on Medical Research, Contractor Records, C 450, R L2, Bimonthly Progress Report, PI Alf S. Alving (University of Chicago), August 1, 1944, cited in David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 36.
27. Ibid., 38; Werner Henle et al., “Experiments on Vaccination of Human Beings Against Epidemic Influenza,” Journal of Immunology 53 (1946): 75–93.
28. Thomas Francis Jr. et al., “Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza A,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 24, no. 4 (1945): 536–46; Jonas E. Salk et al., “Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza B,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 24, no. 4 (1945): 547–53.
29. Koprowski, “Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,” 298.
30. Koprowski, Jervis, and Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,” 109.
31. Oshinsky, Polio, 136.
32. Koprowski, “Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,” 299.
33. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 15–16.
34. Koprowski, Jervis and Norton, “Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,” 125.
35. Norman Topping (with Gordon Cohn), Recollections (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 139–41.
36. Leonard Warren, “A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology” (unpublished manuscript, March 25, 2014), 121–22.
37. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 77–78; Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 122.
38. William DuBarry, president of the Wistar Institute board of managers, to Hilary Koprowski, January 24, 1957, UPA4 (Office of the President Records), box 114, folder 19 (Wistar Institute: Administrative Appointments, 1955–1960), University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
39. Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 77.
40. Ibid., 81.
41. Ibid., 63–64.
42. Ibid., 79.
43. Warren, “History of the Wistar Institute,” 127.
44. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report, 1958–1959, 9–11, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
45. Ibid., 24.
46. Elsa M. Zitcer, Jørgen Fogh, and Thelma H. Dunnebacke, “Human Amnion Cells for Large-Scale Production of Poliovirus,” Science 122, no. 3157 (1955): 30; Jørgen Fogh and R. O. Lund, “Continuous Cultivation of Epithelial Cell Strain (FL) from Human Amniotic Membrane,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 94, no. 3 (1957): 532–37; Thelma H. Dunnebacke and Elsa M. Zitcer, “Transformation of Cells from the Normal Human Amnion into Established Strains,” Cancer Research 17 (1957): 1047–53.
47. Leonard Hayflick, “The Establishment of a Line (WISH) of Human Amnion Cells in Continuous Cultivation,” Experimental Cell Research 23, no. 1 (1961): 14–20.
48. Stanley M. Gartler, National Cancer Institute Monograph 26, no. 167 (1967); Stanley M. Gartler, “Apparent HeLa Cell Contamination of Human Heteroploid Cell Lines,” Nature 217 (1968): 750–51.
49. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report, 1958–1959, 24; Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, June 9, 2014.
Chapter Four: Abnormal Chromosomes and Abortions
1. Robert E. Hall, “Abortion in American Hospitals,” American Journal of Public Health 57, no. 11 (1967): 1933.
2. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report: 1958–1959, 25, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
3. D. A. Rigoni-Stern, “Fatti Statistici Relativi alle Malattie Cancerose Che Servirono di Base Alle Poche Cose Dette dal Dott.,” G Servire Progr Path Tera 2 (1842): 507–17, Daniel DiMaio, “Nuns, Warts, Viruses and Cancer,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 88, no. 2 (2015): 127.
4. V. Ellerman and O. Bang, “Experimentelle Leukämie bei Hühnern,” Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infectionskr Hyg Abt I 46 (1908): 595–609. For an English-language description of Ellerman and Bang’s paper, see Robin A. Weiss and Peter K. Vogt, “One Hundred Years of Rous Sarcoma Virus,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 208, no. 12 (2011): 2352, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3256973/#bib12.
5. Peyton Rous, “A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 13, no. 4 (1911): 397–411, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124874/pdf/397.pdf.
6. George Klein, “The Strange Road to the Tumor-Specific Transplantation Antigens,” Cancer Immunity 1 (2001): 6, http://cancerimmunolres.aacrjournals.org/content/canimmarch/1/1/6.full.
7. “Medicine: Cornering the Killer,” Time, July 27, 1959, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864777,00.html.
8. Hilary Koprowski, “The Viral Concept of the Etiology of Cancer,” undated article from unidentified journal, c. 1960, p. 57, UPT 50 R252, box 22, file folder 24, “Professional Correspondence, Kop-Kos,” Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Biennial Report: 1958–1959, 25, Wistar Institute Archives, Philadelphia, PA.
9. Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan, “The Chromosome Number of Man,” Hereditas 42 (1956): 1–6, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x/epdf.
10. T. C. Tsu, Charles S. Pomerat, and Paul S. Moorhead, “Mammalian Chromosomes in Vitro VIII: Heteroploid Transformation in the Human Cell Strain Mayes,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 19 (1957): 867–73; R. S. Chang, “Continuous Subcultivation of Epithelial-like Cells from Normal Human Tissues,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 87, no. 2 (1954): 440–43; J. Leighton et al., “Transformation of Normal Human Fibroblasts into Histologically Malignant Tissue in Vitro,” Science 123, no. 3195 (1956): 502–3; L. Hayflick and P. S. Moorhead, “Cell Lines from Non-neoplastic Tissue,” in P. L. Altman and D. S. Dittmer, eds., Growth (Bethesda, MD: Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1962), 156–60.
11. D. von Hansemann, “Ueber asymmetrische Zellteilung in Epithelkrebsen und deren biologische Bedeutung,” Virchows Arch Path Anat Physiol Klin Med 119 (1890): 299–326.
12. Henry Harris, trans. and ann., “‘Concerning the Origin of Malignant Tumours’ by Theodor Boveri,” Journal of Cell Science 121 (2008): S1–S84. This is a translation of Boveri’s original paper.
13. Peter C. Nowell
and David A. Hungerford, “A Minute Chromosome in Human Chronic Granulocytic Leukemia,” Science 132 (1960): 1497.
14. J. H. Tjio and Theodore T. Puck, “Genetics of Somatic Mammalian Cells II: Chromosomal Constitution of Cells in Tissue Culture,” Journal of Experimental Medicine 108 (1958): 261.
15. Rachel Benson Gold, “Lessons from Before Roe: Will Past Be Prologue?” Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6, no. 1 (2003): 9.
16. Purdon’s Pennsylvania Statutes and Consolidated Statutes, Title 18, Crimes and Offenses, Chapter 2: The Penal Code of 1939, Article VII: Offenses Against the Person, Section 718: Abortion.
17. Ibid., Section 719: Abortion Causing Death.
18. Commonwealth v. Zimmerman, 214 Pa. Super. 61, 251 A.2d 819 (1969); Commonwealth v. King, No. 37, March Term 1968, Pa. Court of Common Pleas (Allegheny County, Criminal Division); Janet M. LaRue, “Is Kate Michelman Telling the Truth About Her Own Abortion Story,” Human Events, January 24, 2006, http://humanevents.com/2006/01/24/is-kate-michelman-telling-the-truth-about-her-own-abortion-story/.
19. Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine and Law in the United States, 1867–1973 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997): 13, 61–70.
20. Ibid., 15, 132, 135.
21. Henry J. Sangmeister, “A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46 (1943): 756–57.
22. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime, 15.
23. R. K. Denworth (Drinker, Biddle and Reath) to I. S. Ravdin, September 28, 1962, page 1, series UPC 1.4, box 14, file folder “Dept. of Ob/Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
24. Name withheld, telephone interview with the author, June 30, 2014.
25. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, “Rules Governing Requests for Therapeutic Abortion and/or Sterilization,” January 21, 1963, series UPC 1.4, box 14, file folder “Dept. of Ob/Gyn,” University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
The Vaccine Race Page 49