29. S. A. Plotkin, H. Koprowski, and J. Stokes Jr., “Clinical Trials in Infants of Orally Administered Attenuated Poliomyelitis Viruses,” Pediatrics 23, no. 6 (1959): 1060.
30. Keerti Shah and Neal Nathanson, “Human Exposure to SV40: Review and Comment,” American Journal of Epidemiology 103, no. 1 (1976): 5.
31. Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” June 25, 1956. Reprinted by The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project, papers.columbian.gwu.edu.
32. Roger Vaughan, Listen to the Music: The Life of Hilary Koprowski (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000), 52; Edward Hooper, The River: A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS (Boston, New York, and London: Little, Brown, 1999), 406.
33. Clinton Farms birth records for 1960, courtesy of Edward Hooper.
34. Mary Q. Hawkes, Excellent Effect: The Edna Mahan Story (Arlington, VA: American Correctional Association, 1994), 109–10.
35. Plotkin, Koprowski, and Stokes, “Clinical Trials in Infants,” 1061.
36. Ibid., 1041.
37. Hooper, The River, 424.
38. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 251, 257.
39. Ibid., 253.
40. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, November 19, 2014.
41. Koprowski, “Live Poliomyelitis Virus Vaccines,” 1154–55.
42. Associated Press, “2 Companies Halt Salk-Shot Output, Seek to Eliminate a Monkey Virus, Believed Harmless, Found in Some Vaccine,” New York Times, July 26, 1961.
43. Bookchin and Schumacher, Virus and the Vaccine, 103–4.
44. “The Great Polio Vaccine Cancer Cover-up: Polio Shots May Kill You,” National Enquirer, August 20, 1961, 1, 14–15, 25.
45. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 253.
46. Ibid., 240–58.
47. June 19, 1961, draft of Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” page 24, file folder “CHAT-WIHL,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
48. Hayflick et al., “Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,” 256.
49. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 10.
50. Roderick Murray (director, Division of Biologics Standards), memo to Dr. Bernice Eddy through Dr. J. E. Smadel, February 16, 1961, in Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings, 592.
51. Smadel to Eddy, “Requirements for Outside Lectures,” 549.
52. Shorter, “Health Century,” Bernice Eddy interview, 7.
53. Ruth Kirschstein, oral history, part 2, interview by Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway, October 29, 1998, page 31, Office of NIH History, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
54. Edward Shorter, “The Health Century Oral History Collection,” interviewee: Maurice Hilleman, February 6, 1987, page 8, transcript available at the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.
55. Bernice Eddy et al., “Identification of the Oncogenic Substance in Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures as Simian Virus 40,” Virology 17 (1962): 65–75.
56. Hilary Koprowski et al., “Transformation of Cultures of Human Tissue Infected with Simian Virus SV40,” Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology 59, no. 3 (1962): 281–92, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcp.1030590308/abstract.
57. Harvey M. Shein and John F. Enders, “Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures I: Morphology and Growth Characteristics,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48 (1962): 1164–72; Harvey M. Shein, John F. Enders, and Jeana D. Levinthal, “Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures II: Cell-Virus Relationships,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48 (1962): 1350–57.
58. Shah and Nathanson, “Human Exposure to SV40,” 3.
Chapter Eight: Trials
1. John Cardinal O’Hara (archbishop of Philadelphia) to Sister M. Jacob, June 26, 1959, Accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
2. James A. Poupard, interviews with the author, March 20 and November 19, 2014.
3. Lisa Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 157–80.
4. Ibid., 167; Donna Gentile O’Donnell, Provider of Last Resort: The Story of the Closure of the Philadelphia General Hospital (Philadelphia: Camino Books, 2005): 96.
5. Levenstein, A Movement Without Marches, 166, 169, 175–76.
6. Ibid., 165; “Ten Year Report: Philadelphia General Hospital,” October 1961, pages 1–10, collection 80-101.2 (“Philadelphia General Hospital, Ten Year Report, 1952–1962”), Philadelphia City Archive.
7. Ibid., 1.
8. Ibid., 4.
9. Joseph S. Pagano et al., “The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Attenuated Poliovirus,” Journal of Pediatrics 29, no. 5 (1962): 794–807; Joseph S. Pagano, Stanley A. Plotkin, and Donald Cornely, “The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Type 3 Attenuated Poliovirus,” Journal of Pediatrics 65, no. 2 (1964): 165–75.
10. Stanley Plotkin, e-mail to the author, July 20, 2016.
11. Pagano, Plotkin, and Cornely, “Response of Premature Infants,” 174.
12. Ibid., 807.
13. Ibid., 806.
14. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
15. Pagano, Plotkin, and Cornely, “Response of Premature Infants,” 794.
16. Leo Morris et al., “Surveillance of Poliomyelitis in the United States, 1962–65,” Public Health Reports 82, no. 5 (1967): 419.
17. James A. Poupard, interview with the author, March 20, 2014.
18. Katherine Auchy, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, March 1963, p. 2, Cardinal Krol Papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center; Ruth McClain, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, April 1966, p. 3, Cardinal Krol Papers, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
19. Auchy, St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children: Report of Inspection and Evaluation.
20. The material on life for the girls and women at St. Vincent’s Hospital for Women and Children was drawn from: Dee Krewson, telephone interview with the author, May 5, 2014; name withheld, telephone interview with the author, April 12, 2014; Fran Scalise, telephone interviews with the author, April 14 and 15, 2014.
21. McClain, Report of Inspection and Evaluation, Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, April 1966, p. 5.
22. Sister Mary Jacob (administrator) to Joseph Stokes, June 18, 1959, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
23. Sister Mary Jacob to John Cardinal O’Hara, July 1, 1959, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
24. “Milestones, Sep. 5, 1960,” Time, September 5, 1960, http://content.time.com/time/sub scriber/article/0,33009,826583,00.html.
25. O’Hara to Jacob, June 26, 1959.
26. Hilary Koprowski to John Cardinal O’Hara, March 7, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
27. Sister Mary Jacob to John Francis Cardinal O’Hara, March 17, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
28. John Cardinal O’Hara to Sister Mary Jacob, March 22, 1960, accession R1990.004, Chancery Files, Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
29. James Poupard, intervi
ew with the author, March 20, 2014.
30. T. W. Norton, Richard Carp, and Stanley A. Plotkin, “Summary of Feeding Results with Attenuated Polioviruses Grown in Human Diploid Cell Strains,” Virus Diseases/WP/6, July 5, 1962, 1–2 (World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell, Geneva, July 16–18, 1962).
31. “Ruth L. Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway, October 29, 1998, p. 5, Office of NIH History, Oral History Archive, Bethesda, MD, https://history.nih.gov/archives/oral_histories.html; Nicholas Wade, “Division of Biologics Standards: The Boat That Never Rocked,” Science 175 (1972): 1226.
32. Leonard B. Seeff et al., “A Serologic Follow-up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army,” New England Journal of Medicine 316 (1987): 966.
33. John Farley, “To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2004)173, 176.
34. Roderick Murray et al., “Hepatitis Carrier State II: Confirmation of Carrier State by Transmission Experiments in Volunteers,” Journal of the American Medical Association 154, no. 13 (1954): 1072–74.
35. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 30–69.
36. William L. Laurence, “Drugs to Combat Malaria Are Tested in Prisons for Army,” New York Times, March 5, 1945, 1, 30.
37. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 33–34.
38. Ibid., 38.
39. Ibid., 51–60.
40. Murray et al., “Hepatitis Carrier State II,” 1072,
41. “Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” October 29, 1998, p. 4.
42. John Finlayson, telephone interview with the author, June 24, 2016.
43. Kirschstein oral history interview, part 2,” p. 4.
44. “Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines: Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring: Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,” Science 139 (1963): 15–20.
45. Ibid., 17.
46. L. Hayflick et al., “Choice of a Cell System for Vaccine Production,” Science 140 (1963): 766–68.
47. World Health Organization, “Report to the Director-General,” MOH/PA/140.62, July 24, 1962, p. 5 (World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell, Geneva, July 16–18 1962).
48. Ibid., 18, 24.
49. Hayflick et al., “Choice of a Cell System,” 768.
50. World Health Organization, “Report to the Director-General,” 19, 24.
51. Ibid., 24.
52. Joseph S. Pagano et al., “The Response and the Lack of Spread in Swedish School Children Given an Attenuated Poliovirus Vaccine Prepared in a Human Diploid Cell Strain,” American Journal of Hygiene 79 (1964): 83.
53. F. Buser et al., “Immunization with Live Attenuated Polio Virus Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains, with Special Reference to the WM-3 Strain,” in Proceedings, Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains (Opatija: International Association of Microbiological Societies, 1963), 386.
54. Drago Ikić et al., “Postvaccinal Reactions After Application of Poliovaccine Live, Oral Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains Wi-38,” Proceedings, Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains (Opatija: International Association of Microbiological Societies, 1963), 405, 406, 413.
55. Hilary Koprowski to Vre C. Mackowiak, December 11, 1963, folder “Outgoing Correspondence,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
Chapter Nine: An Emerging Enemy
1. Norman McAlister Gregg, “Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,” Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3 (1941): 40.
2. P. M. Dunn, “Perinatal Lessons from the Past: Sir Norman Gregg, ChM, MC, of Sydney (1892–1966) and Rubella Embryopathy,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, Fetal and Neonatal Edition 92, no. 6 (2007): F513–14, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675410/.
3. Margaret Burgess, e-mail to the author, February 23, 2015; Margaret Burgess, “Gregg’s Rubella Legacy 1941–1991,” Medical Journal of Australia 155 (1991): 355.
4. Erwin Heinz Ackerknecht, A Short History of Medicine, rev. ed. (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 129. This was originally published in English by the Ronald Press Company, New York, 1955.
5. William George Maton, “Some Account of a Rash Liable to Be Mistaken for Scarlatina,” Medical Transactions Published by the College of Physicians of London 5 (1815): 149–65.
6. Henry Veale, “History of an Epidemic of Rötheln, with Observations on Its Pathology,” Edinburgh Medical Journal 12 (1866): 404–14.
7. Dorothy Horstmann, “Maxwell Finland Lecture: Viral Vaccines and Their Ways,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1, no. 3 (1979): 510.
8. Alfred D. Heggie and Frederick C. Robbins, “Natural Rubella Acquired After Birth: Clinical Features and Complications,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 15.
9. Gregg, “Congenital Cataract,” 42.
10. Burgess, “Gregg’s Rubella Legacy,” 355.
11. Gregg, “Congenital Cataract,” 42.
12. Ibid., 35–46.
13. C. Swan et al., “Congenital Defects in Infants Following Infectious Diseases During Pregnancy: With Special Attention to the Relationship Between German Measles and Cataract, Deaf-Mutism, Heart Disease and Microcephaly, and to the Period of Pregnancy in Which Occurrence of Rubella Is Followed by Congenital Abnormalities,” Medical Journal of Australia 2 (1943): 201–10.
14. “Rubella and Congenital Malformations,” Lancet 1 (1944): 316.
15. “Congenital Defects Following Maternal Rubella,” Journal of the American Medical Association 130 (1946): 574–75.
16. Morris Greenberg, Ottavio Pellitteri, and Jerome Barton, “Frequency of Defects in Infants Whose Mothers Had Rubella During Pregnancy,” Journal of the American Medical Association 165, no. 6 (1957): 675–76.
17. Stella Chess, “Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1, no. 1 (1971): 33–47; Brynn E. Berger, Ann Marie Navar-Boggan, and Saad B. Omer, “Congenital Rubella Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevented by Rubella Vaccination: United States, 2001–2010,” BMC Public Health 11 (2011): 340, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123590/#B7.
18. John Fry, J. B. Dillane, and Lionel Fry, “Rubella, 1962,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5308 (1962): 833–34.
19. Elizabeth Miller, “Rubella in the United Kingdom,” Epidemiology and Infection 107 (1991): 34; C. S. Peckham, “Congenital Rubella in the United Kingdom Before 1970: The Prevaccine Era,” Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7 (supp. 1) (1985): S11–21.
20. “News in Brief,” Times (London), Thursday, March 15, 1962, 6.
21. “German Measles at Eton,” Times (London), Tuesday, March 27, 1962, 16.
22. Eric Todd, “Shackleton’s Old Tricks Serve Him Well Against Yorkshire: Wilson Consoles the Partisans,” Guardian, June 28, 1962, 10.
23. A Mother, “Difficult Duty,” Guardian, August 9, 1963, 6.
24. Thomas H. Weller and Franklin A. Neva, “Propagation in Tissue Culture of Cytopathic Agents from Patients with Rubella-Like Illness,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111 (October 1962): 216–25.
25. Paul D. Parkman, Edward L. Buescher, and Malcolm S. Artenstein, “Recovery of Rubella Virus from Army Recruits,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111 (1962): 225–30.
26. Lee Plotkin, Anecdotes of My Life, a self-published memoir (Lee Plotkin, Stanley Pl
otkin, and Brenda Magalaner, 1986), 1986, 38–45, 57–61, 66–71.
27. The biographical material on Stanley Plotkin comes from interviews I conducted with Plotkin from 2013 to 2015, dates of which are detailed in the selected bibliography; from Anecdotes of My Life, a 1986 memoir by Stanley Plotkin’s mother, Lee Plotkin; and from Stanley A. Plotkin, “The Late Sequelae of Arrowsmith,” Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 21 (2002): 807–8.
28. Ibid., 808.
29. “Memorandum to Editors Concerning Press, Radio and Television Conference,” June 15, 1959, UPA 4, box 114, file folder “Lederle Laboratories National Drug Company (1955–1960),” Office of the President Records, Gaylord P. Harnwell Admin. 1955–1960, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
30. Stanley A. Plotkin, John A. Dudgeon, and A. Melvin Ramsay, “Laboratory Studies on Rubella and the Rubella Syndrome,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5368 (1963): 1299.
31. Ibid.
32. J. A. Dudgeon, N. R. Butler, and Stanley A. Plotkin, “Further Serological Studies on the Rubella Syndrome,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5402 (1964): 159–60.
33. L. S. Oshiro, N. J. Schmidt, and E. H. Lennette, “Electron Microscopic Studies of Rubella Virus,” Journal of General Virology 5 (1969): 205.
34. Robert S. Duszak, “Congenital Rubella Syndrome—Major Review,” Optometry 80 (2009): 38–39; Van Hung Pham et al., “Rubella Epidemic in Vietnam: Characteristic of Rubella Virus Genes from Pregnant Women and Their Fetuses/Newborns with Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Journal of Clinical Virology 57 (2013): 152.
35. William S. Webster, “Teratogen Update: Congenital Rubella,” Teratology 58 (1998): 16, http://teratology.org/updates/58pg13.pdf; J. E. Banatvala and D.W.G. Brown, “Seminar: Rubella,” Lancet 363 (2004): 1129.
36. Joseph A. Bellanti et al., “Congenital Rubella: Clinicopathologic, Virologic, and Immunologic Studies,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 110 (1965): 465, 470; Thong Van Nguyen, Van Hung Pham, and Kenji Abe, “Pathogenesis of Congenital Rubella Infection in Human Fetuses: Viral Infection in the Ciliary Body Could Play an Important Role in Cataractogenesis,” EBioMedicine 2 (2015): 59–60.
The Vaccine Race Page 51