10. Stanley A. Plotkin, David Cornfeld, and Theodore H. Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization with Living Rubella Virus: Trials in Children of a Strain Cultured from an Aborted Fetus,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 110 (1965): 382.
11. Stanley A. Plotkin to Dr. Tepper (Division of Biologics Standards, National Institutes of Health), May 15, 1964, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
12. Roderick Murray (director, Division of Biologics Standards) to Stanley Plotkin, May 21, 1964, p. 1, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
13. Ibid., p. 2; “Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines: Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring: Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,” Science 139 (1963): 15–20.
14. Murray to Plotkin, May 21, 1964.
15. Stanley Plotkin, e-mail to the author, February 24, 2016.
16. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
17. Stanley A. Plotkin to Theodore Ingalls, May 8, 1964, file folder “St. Vincent’s,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
18. Y. Hiro and S. Tasaka, “Die röetheln sind eine Viruskrankheit,” Mschr Kinderheilk 76 (1938): 328–32. (The article’s title translates to “Rubella Is a Viral Disease.”)
19. S. Krugman et al., “Studies on Rubella Immunization I: Demonstration of Rubella Without Rash,” Journal of the American Medical Association 151, no. 4 (1953): 285–88.
20. John L. Sever et al., “Rubella Virus,” Journal of the American Medical Association 162, no. 6 (1962): 663–71.
21. Stanley Plotkin, interview with the author, May 25, 2015.
22. Plotkin, Cornfeld, and Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization,” 382.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.; Stanley A. Plotkin to George A. Jervis, November 6, 1964, file folder “Correspondence-out,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
26. Plotkin, Cornfeld, and Ingalls, “Studies of Immunization,” 383–84.
27. Ibid., 387–88.
28. All of the information about the Wenzler family and their story was obtained from in-person and telephone interviews with Mary and Steve Wenzler on March 19, March 23, April 16, April 18, and May 22, 2015, and from follow-up e-mails.
29. J. C. McDonald, “Gamma-Globulin for Prevention of Rubella in Pregnancy,” British Medical Journal 2, no. 5354 (1963): 416.
30. Ibid., 418.
31. Mary Wenzler, interview with the author, March 23, 2015.
32. Harold G. Scheie et al., “Congenital Rubella Cataracts: Surgical Results and Virus Recovery from Intraocular Tissue,” Archives of Ophthalmology 77 (1967): 444.
33. John F. O’Neill, interview with the author, June 1, 2015.
34. John F. O’Neill, “The Ocular Manifestations of Congenital Infection: A Study of the Early Effect and Long-Term Outcome of Maternally Transmitted Rubella and Toxoplasmosis,” Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 96 (1998): 839, 867.
35. Ibid., 867.
36. John F. O’Neill, interview with the author, June 1, 2015.
37. O’Neill, “Ocular Manifestations,” 834; Scheie et al., “Congenital Rubella Cataracts,” 442.
38. Norman McAlister Gregg, “Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,” Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3 (1941): 39.
39. M. E. Oster, T. Riehle-Colarusso, and A. Correa, “An Update on Cardiovascular Malformations in Congenital Rubella Syndrome,” Birth Defects Research Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology 88, no. 1 (2010): 1–8.
40. S. Chess, P. Fernandez, and S. Korn, “Behavioral Consequences of Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Pediatrics 93, no. 4 (1978): 699–703; William S. Webster, “Teratogen Update: Congenital Rubella,” Teratology 58 (1998): 20; Stella Chess, “Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1, no. 1 (1971): 33.
41. C. J. Priebe Jr., J. A. Holahan, and P. R. Ziring, “Abnormalities of the Vas Deferens and Epidiymis in Cryptorchid Boys with Congenital Rubella,” Journal of Pediatric Surgery 14, no. 6 (1979): 834–38.
Chapter Thirteen: The Devils We Know
1. Stanley A. Plotkin, “History of Rubella Vaccines and the Recent History of Cell Culture,” in Vaccinia, Vaccination and Vaccinology: Jenner, Pasteur and Their Successors, S. Plotkin and B. Fantini, eds. (Paris: Elsevier, 1996), 275.
2. Eugene Buynak et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,” Journal of the American Medical Association 204, no. 3 (1968): 196.
3. David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making (New York: de Gruyter, 1991, 2003), 64.
4. Leslie J. Reagan, Dangerous Pregnancies: Mothers, Disabilities, and Abortion in Modern America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010), 63–64.
5. Paul Parkman, interview with the author, April 7, 2015.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.; Reagan, Dangerous Pregnancies, 181.
8. Parkman, interview with the author.
9. Sarah Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” June 7, 2005, p. 20, Office of NIH Oral History Program, National Institutes of Health.
10. Harry M. Meyer Jr., Paul D. Parkman, and Theodore C. Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II: Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 575.
11. Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” 19.
12. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 56.
13. Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” 21–22.
14. Meyer, Parkman, and Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II,” 575–80.
15. Mary Thérèse Hasson, telephone interview with the author, October 24, 2014.
16. “New Patients Arrive Monday,” Hamburg Item, January 7, 1960; “Local T-B Hospital Changed by Law to Child Welfare,” Hamburg Item, December 3, 1959, p. 1.
17. Francis Muller, interview with the author, May 21, 2015.
18. Jasper G. Chen See to Benjamin P. Clark, February 1, 1967, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
19. Jasper G. Chen See to Benjamin P. Clark, October 30, 1967, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
20. “Patients Move Around Like Robots: Retarded at Hamburg State School Are Kept Heavily Drugged According to Superintendent,” Observer-Reporter (Washington, PA), April 20, 1973, p. A13.
21. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, March 25, 1968, folder “Hamburg IX,” Stanley Plotkin private papers; Francis Muller interview with the author, May 21, 2015.
22. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “A New Attenuated Rubella Virus Grown In Human Fibroblasts: Evidence For Reduced Nasopharyngeal Excretion,” American Journal of Epidemiology 86 (1967): 469.
23. Henry K. Beecher, “Ethics and Clinical Research,” New England Journal of Medicine 274, no. 24 (1966): 1354–60, www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM196606162742405.
24. Ibid., 1355.
25. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 273.
26. Captain Robert Chamovitz et al., “Prevention of Rheumatic Fever by Treatment of Previous Streptococcal Infections I: Evaluation of Benzathine Penicillin G,” New England Journal of Medicine 251, no. 12 (1954): 466–71.
27. Saul Krugman et al., “Infectious Hepatitis: Detection of Virus During the Incubation Period and in Clinically Inapparent Infection,” New England Journal of Medicine 261 (1959): 729–34.
28. Elinor Langer, “Human Experimentation: Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics,” Science 143 (1964): 552.
29. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 8
7–90.
30. William H. Stewart, “Surgeon General’s Directives on Human Experimentation,” PPO #129 (Bethesda, MD: U.S. Public Health Service Division of Research Grants, revised July l, 1966).
31. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside, 38; Dr. Ross, memo to Mr. Zernik, October 6, 1967, file folder “Vaccine Development Board,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
32. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, July 25, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
33. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, July 27, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I;” single sheet titled “1st group: 8–1 to 9–13,” folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
34. Stanley Plotkin e-mail to the author, February 24, 2016.
35. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, May 29, 1968, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
36. Stanley A. Plotkin et al., “A New Attenuated Rubella Virus,” 468–77.
37. James L. Bittle et al., “Results of Testing Production Lots of Oral Poliovirus Vaccine,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 116, no. 2 (1966): 215–20.
38. Plotkin et al., “New Attenuated Rubella Virus,” 473.
39. Werner Slenczka and Hans Dieter Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 196, supp. 2 (2007): S133.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid., S131.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. K. Todorovitch, M. Mocitch, and R. Klašnja, “Clinical Picture of Two Patients Infected by the Marburg Vervet Virus,” in Marburg Virus Disease, Gustav Adolf Martini and Rudolf Siegert, eds. (Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1971), 19.
45. G. A. Martini, “Marburg Virus Disease: Clinical Syndrome,” in Martini and Siegert, Marburg Virus Disease, 1.
46. Ibid., 2.
47. Ibid.
48. P. Gedigk, H. Bechtelsheimer, and G. Korb, “Pathologic Anatomy of Marburg Virus Disease,” in Martini and Siegert, Marburg Virus Disease, 50.
49. Richard Preston, The Hot Zone (New York: Anchor Books, 1994), 38.
50. Slenczka and Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” S131–32; Lawrence Corey, “Marburg Virus Disease,” in chapter 207, “Rabies and Other Rhabdoviruses,” in Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine Tenth Edition (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983), 1139.
51. C. E. Gordon Smith et al., “Fatal Human Disease from Vervet Monkeys,” Lancet 290, no. 7526 (1967): 1119.
52. Richard Lyons, “Diseases Carried by Pets Increase,” New York Times, October 26, 1967, p. 24; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare Public Health Service, National Cancer Institute Monograph December 29, 1968, Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production, 474; Leonard Hayflick, “Human Virus Vaccines: Why Monkey Cells?,” Science 176 (1972): 813.
53. Preston, Hot Zone, 40–42.
54. Slenczka and Klenk, “Forty Years of Marburg Virus,” S134.
55. Conference on Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production, 474.
56. Ibid., 474–75.
Chapter Fourteen: Politics and Persuasion
1. Jacob Bronowski, “The Disestablishment of Science,” Encounter, July 1971, 15.
2. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of October 31, 1967,” p. 4, UPT 50 R252, box 68, file folder 12, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Collection, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
3. Stanley Plotkin to Benjamin Clark, December 5, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
4. Earl Beck (scientist-administrator, Vaccine Development Branch, NIAID) to Stanley Plotkin, November 21, 1967, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
5. Daniel Mullally to Hilary Koprowski, November 27, 1967, folder “Vaccine Development Board,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
6. Robert J. Ferlauto (director, Research-Microbiology, Smith, Kline & French Laboratories) to Stanley Plotkin, December 1, 1967, folder “SKF-Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
7. Plotkin to Clark.
8. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, December 13, 1966, folder “Hamburg-I,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
9. Lois Colley, R.N. (director of nursing), memo to Dr. Clark (superintendent, Hamburg State School and Hospital), “Dr. Plotkin’s Letter of June 15, 1967, Received Yesterday,” June 16, 1967, folder “Rubella,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
10. Benjamin Clark to Stanley Plotkin, June 21, 1967, folder “Hamburg-VI,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
11. Stanley Plotkin to Miss Lois Colley, July 10, 1967, folder “Hamburg-VI,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
12. Bernard Frankel to Roderick Murray, January 10, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
13. Stanley Plotkin to Theodore Ingalls (Epidemiologic Study Center, Framingham, Mass.), January 10, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
14. Stanley Plotkin to Robert Dechert (Dechert, Price & Rhoads), January 17, 1968, folder “DBS,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
15. Paul D. Parkman et al., “Attenuated Rubella Virus I: Development and Laboratory Characterization,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 569–74; Harry M. Meyer Jr., Paul D. Parkman, and Theodore C. Panos, “Attenuated Rubella Virus II: Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,” New England Journal of Medicine 275, no. 11 (1966): 575–80.
16. Harry M. Meyer Jr. et al., “Clinical Studies with Experimental Live Rubella Virus Vaccine (Strain HPV-77): Evaluation of Vaccine-Induced Immunity,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 117 (1968): 648–54.
17. “Drs. Meyer, Parkman Win Joint Recognition for Rubella Research,” NIH Record XIX, no. 22 (November 14, 1967): 3.
18. George L. Stewart et al., “Rubella-Virus Hemagglutination-Inhibition Test,” New England Journal of Medicine 276, no. 10 (1967): 554–57; Sarah Leavitt, “Dr. Paul Parkman Interview,” June 7, 2005, pp. 26–28, Office of NIH History Oral History Program, National Institutes of Health.
19. “Dr. Paul D. Parkman Named One of Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Year,” NIH Record XX, no. 2 (January 23, 1968): 1 and 7.
20. Lyndon Baines Johnson to Paul D. Parkman, May 5, 1966, Name File P, file folder “Parkman, I–P,” box 56, White House Central File, LBJ Presidential Library, Austin, TX.
21. Samuel J. Musser and Larry J. Hilsabeck, “Production of Rubella Virus Vaccine: Live, Attenuated, in Canine Renal Cell Cultures,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118 (1969): 356–57, 361.
22. Paul Offit, Vaccinated: One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 76–78; Maurice Hilleman interview with Paul Offit, November 30, 2004. Audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
23. Hilleman, interview with Offit.
24. Ibid.
25. Maurice R. Hilleman et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines: Experiences with Duck Embryo Cell Preparations,” American Journal of Diseases of Children 118, no. 2 (1969): 166.
26. Eugene Buynak et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus, Vaccines prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,” Journal of the American Medical Association 204, no. 3 (1968): 197 (table 2).
27. Hilleman, interview with Offit, 2004.
28. Robert E. Weibel et al., “Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture II: Clinical Tests in Families and in an Institution,” Journal of the American Medical Association 205, no. 8 (1969): 558.
29. Ibid.
30. Hilleman, interview with Offit.
31. Ibid.
Chapter Fifteen: The Great Escape
1. John F. Morrison and William T. Keough, “Ex-Phila. Scientist Battles U.S. over Frozen Cells,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 4, 1976.
2. International Ass
ociation of Microbiological Societies, Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization, “Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,” November 27, 1968, 21.
3. J. P. Jacobs and F. T. Perkins, “Supplying Cell Cultures Regularly to Distant Laboratories,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 40 (1969): 476–78.
4. J. P. Jacobs, C. M. Jones, and J. P. Baille, “Characteristics of a Human Diploid Cell Designated MRC-5,” Nature 227 (1970): 168–70.
5. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Human Cells Given Role in Vaccines,” New York Times, November 12, 1966, 36.
6. Jane Brody, “Cell Bank Is Suggested for Every Person at Birth,” New York Times, April 3, 1967, 25.
7. “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 4/30/66,” fourth page: “Percentage Report as of 4/30/66—Grants,” account number 60188, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 13 “Wistar Institute 1966”, Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania; “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,” fourth page: “Percentage Report as of 10/31/67—Grants,” account number 188, UPT 50 R252, box 68, folder 12 (“Wistar Institute 1966–67”), Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers, University Archives and Records Center, University of Pennsylvania.
8. Albert Sabin to Sidney Raffel, August 4, 1967, Correspondence, Individual (Graetz–Hayflick), series 1, box 11, folder “Hayflick, Leonard, 1964–81,” Albert B. Sabin Collection, Henry R. Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions, University of Cincinnati Libraries, Cincinnati, Ohio.
9. Nancy Pleibel, interview with the author, March 6, 2013.
10. Minutes, Wistar Institute Board of Managers, June 19, 1962; June 22, 1964; and June 15, 1965. All minutes were accessed in a bound volume of minutes of The Wistar Institute Board of Managers meetings, pp. 193, 152, and 213, respectively. Courtesy of The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA.
11. Minutes, Wistar Institute Board of Managers, December 14, 1965. Accessed in a bound volume of minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers meetings, p. 222. Courtesy of The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA.
The Vaccine Race Page 53