11. Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection,” 777.
12. Dorothy Horstmann to Stanley Plotkin, January 30 1970.
13. Stanley Plotkin to Dorothy Horstmann, November 30, 1970, and April 16, 1971, folder “Horstmann,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
14. Dorothy Horstmann to Stanley Plotkin, March 12, 1970, file folder “Horstmann,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
15. Ann Schluederberg et al., “Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies to Rubella Virus as Indicators of Protective Immunity in Vaccinees and Naturally Immune Individuals,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 138, no. 6 (1978): 877–83.
16. Liebhaber et al., “Vaccination with RA 27/3,” 133–36.
17. Chang, DesRosiers, and Weinstein, “Clinical and Serological Studies,” 247; Wilkins et al., “Reinfection with Rubella Virus,” 291; Horstmann et al., “Rubella: Reinfection,” 775; Stanley A. Plotkin, John D. Farquhar, and Ogra L. Pearay, “Immunologic Properties of RA27/3 Rubella Virus Vaccine: A Comparison with Strains Presently Licensed in the United States,” Journal of the American Medical Association 225, no. 6 (1973): 588.
18. Liebhaber et al., “Vaccination with RA 27/3,” 134–35.
19. Ibid., 136.
20. Maurice Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit November 30, 2004. Audio file courtesy of Paul Offit.
21. Plotkin, Farquhar, and Pearay, “Immunologic Properties of RA 27/3,” 585 and 589.
22. Stanley Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, October 3, 1973, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
23. Hilleman, interview with Paul Offit.
24. Robert E. Weibel et al., “Clinical and Laboratory Studies of Live Attenuated RA 27/3 and HPV 77-DE Rubella Virus Vaccines,” Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 165, no. 1 (1980): 44–49.
25. Ibid., 44.
26. Schluederberg et al., “Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies,” 877–83.
27. Pamela Eisele (Merck spokesperson), e-mail to the author, August 31, 2015.
Chapter Twenty: Slaughtered Babies and Skylab
1. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, October 3, 2012.
2. Forrest Stevenson Jr., “Women, the Bible and Abortion,” (Brighton, MI: Forrest Stevenson, 1972). Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
3. State of Michigan, Department of State, “Initiatives and Referendums Under the Constitution of the State of Michigan, 1963,” December 5, 2008, 14.
4. James V. Siena to Forrest Stevenson, November 30, 1972. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
5. Arthur F. Barkey to James V. Siena, December 7, 1972. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
6. Forrest Stevenson to Dr. Hayflick, in “Letters to the Editor,” Gazette Times (Heppner, OR), July 4, 1974.
7. Leonard Hayflick to Life Line (Passaic County Right to Life newsletter), July 20, 1973. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
8. United Press International, “Human Cells to Be Orbited in Outer Space,” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1973.
9. James J. Ambrose to Joseph T. McGucken (archbishop of San Francisco), May 2, 1973. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
10. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 17, 2012.
11. P. O. Montgomery et al., “The Response of Single Human Cells to Zero Gravity,” in Richard S. Johnston and Lawrence F. Dietlein, Biomedical Results from Skylab, NASA SP-377 (Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Office, National Aeronautical and Space Administration, 1977), 221–33.
12. Mrs. Raymond Somerville to Leonard Hayflick, June 14, 1973.
Chapter Twenty-one: Cells, Inc.
1. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012.
2. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 34.
3. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, “Contract Number: PH43-62-157,” February 6, 1962, Section 30: “Termination for the Convenience of the Government,” part (g), p. HEW-315-6. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
4. Schriver Report, attachment B.
5. Schriver Report, 9.
6. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 11, 2012.
7. Schriver Report, 9; John E. Shannon and Marvin L. Macy, eds., The American Type Culture Collection Registry of Animal Cell Lines, 2nd ed. (Rockville, MD: American Type Culture Collection, 1972), 17; Robert Hay et al., eds., The American Type Culture Collection: Catalogue of Strains II, 2nd ed. (Rockville, MD: American Type Culture Collection, 1979), viii.
8. Schriver Report, 10.
9. Louis Rosenfeld, “Insulin: Discovery and Controversy,” Clinical Chemistry 48, no. 12 (2002): 2280.
10. Jonas Salk, interview with Edward R. Murrow on See It Now, CBS, April 12, 1955. Quoted in Elizabeth Popp Berman, Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 5; and in Jane S. Smith, Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine (New York: Morrow, 1990), 13.
11. Frederick J. Hammett, “Uncommitted Researchers,” Science 117 (1953): 64.
12. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 17, 2012.
13. Schriver Report, 9.
14. Ibid., 11; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 106.
15. Schriver Report, attachment A.
16. Ibid., 12.
17. Ibid., 6–7.
18. Ibid.; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 58–59.
19. Schriver Report, 12; Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 106.
20. Factual Chronology, 38–39.
21. Ibid., 38.
22. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 4, 2013.
23. Schriver Report, 12.
24. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 14.
25. Stanley N. Cohen et al., “Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids in Vitro,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70, no. 11 (1973): 3240–44.
26. Niels Reimers, “Stanford’s Office of Technology Licensing and the Cohen/Boyer Cloning Patents,” oral history conducted in 1997 by Sally Smith Hughes, p. 3, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, 1998.
27. Sally Smith Hughes, “Making Dollars Out of DNA: The First Major Patent in Biotechnology and the Commercialization of Molecular Biology, 1974–1980,” Isis 92 (2001): 549; Berman, Creating the Market University, 64.
28. Rajendra K. Bera, “Commentary: The Story of the Cohen-Boyer Patents,” Current Science 96, no. 6 (2009): 760.
29. Herbert W. Boyer, “Recombinant DNA Research at UCSF and Commercial Application at Genentech,” oral history conducted in 1994 by Sally Smith Hughes, p. 98, Regional Oral History Office, Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, www.oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt5d5nb0zs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text (accessed February 26, 2016). Also cited in Berman, Creating the Market University, 66.
30. Stephen S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003), 37.
31. Ronald W. Lamont-Havers to Leonard Hayflick, October 10, 1974. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
32. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 3–4; Leonard Hayflick, “Hayflick’s Reply,” Science 202 (1978): 129.
33. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 4–6.
34. Ibid., 6–7; Schriver Report, 1; Factual Chronology, 21.
35. Donald G. Murphy to Leonard Hayflick, January 31, 1975. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
36. “Factual Chronology,” 21.
37. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 6–7.
38. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012
.
39. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 6.
40. “James Schriver Named Head of Newly Created OAM Audit Branch,” NIH Record 25, no. 3 (February 12, 1963): 5; “James Schriver Retires After 17 Years at NIH,” NIH Record 32, no. 7 (April 1, 1980): 4.
41. “James Schriver Named Head,” 5.
42. Nicholas Wade, “Division of Biologics Standards: Scientific Management Questioned,” Science 175 (1972): 966.
43. Philip M. Boffey, “The Fall and Rise of Leonard Hayflick, Biologist Whose Fight with US Seems Over,” New York Times, January 19, 1982.
44. Richard Dugas, telephone interview with the author, April 27, 2013.
45. Nicholas Wade, telephone interview with the author, April 30, 2013.
46. All of Nancy Pleibel’s recollections are drawn from interviews with the author on March 6 and 7, 2013.
47. Richard Dugas, telephone interview with the author, July 25, 2015.
48. Factual Chronology, 25, 28–29; Schriver Report, 5.
49. Nancy Pleibel, interview with the author, March 6, 2013.
50. Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology and Connaught Laboratories, License Agreement, January 1, 1973, folder “Connaught Correspondence,” Stanley Plotkin private papers, Doylestown, PA.
51. Schriver Report, 7.
52. Ibid.
53. Factual Chronology, 26–27.
54. Ibid., 26.
55. Ibid., 27.
56. Ibid., 28.
57. Leonard Hayflick, telephone interview with the author, October 16, 2012.
58. Factual Chronology, 38.
59. Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations, Consumer Safety Act of 1972: Hearings on Titles I and II of S. 3419, 92nd Cong., 2nd sess., April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4, 1972, p. 35.
60. Factual Chronology, 38–39.
61. Ibid.
62. Leon Jacobs, memo to the record, “Re: Telephone Conversation with Mr. Don Brooks (Attorney), Merck and Company,” March 31, 1976, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
63. M. F. Miller (Merck) “Memo for File: WI-38 Human Diploid Cells,” July 11, 1974. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
64. Riseberg Memo, 3.
65. Ibid.
66. Richard Thornburgh to Richard J. Riseberg, August 6, 1975, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
67. Factual Chronology, 33.
68. Donald G. Murphy, memos to the record, “PHS Working Group on WI-38,” July 21 and 25, 1975, investigations 9, folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
69. J. E. Shannon, memo to Dr. R. Donvick, October 9, 1975, “Reference: Inventory of WI-38 Cells Delivered by NIH.” Courtesy of Frank Simione, American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA.
Chapter Twenty-two: Rocky Passage
1. Nicholas Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,” Science 192, no. 4235 (1976): 125.
2. Harold M. Schmeck Jr., “Investigator Says Scientist Sold Cell Specimens Owned by U.S.,” New York Times, March 28, 1976, 1, 26.
3. Schriver Report, 1–14 and attachments A–C.
4. Factual Chronology, 51.
5. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 41, 45.
6. Ibid., 53; Nicholas Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” Science 194, no. 4260 (1976): 41.
7. Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” 41.
8. Leonard Hayflick, “Hayflick’s Reply,” Science 202 (1978): 131.
9. Leonard Hayflick, “Press Statement,” Plotkin Rubella Papers, folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
10. Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy,” 125–27.
11. Nicholas Wade, telephone interview with the author, April 30, 2013.
12. Schmeck, “Investigator Says Scientist Sold,” 26.
13. Schriver Report, 4; Factual Chronology, 13.
14. Factual Chronology, 34.
15. Wade, “Hayflick’s Tragedy,” 127.
16. Pan Demetrakakes, “Prof in Alleged Fund Misuse,” Stanford Daily 169, no. 22 (March 3, 1976).
17. Factual Chronology, 43.
18. Ibid.
19. Clayton Rich, “Dean Rich Speaks on Hayflick Case,” Stanford University Campus Report 8, no. 40 (July 21, 1976), investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
20. William Fenwick, interview with the author, October 6, 2012.
21. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Letter: Hayflick’s Tragedy,” Science 192 (1976): 1182–84.
22. Hilleman is quoted in Stephen S. Hall, Merchants of Immortality: Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension (Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2003), 39.
23. Albert Sabin to Bernard Strehler, December 1, 1981, box 11, file folder “Correspondence, Individual, Hayflick, Leonard, 1964–81,” Correspondence-Individual (Graetz-Hayflick) series 1, Albert B. Sabin Collection, Henry R. Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions, University of Cincinnati Libraries.
24. Fenwick, interview with the author.
25. Cell Associates, Inc. and Leonard Hayflick v. National Institute [sic] of Health; Department of Health, Education and Welfare; and Donald Fredrickson, Director of National Institute [sic] of Health (U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California, C76 601 RHS), March 25, 1976, p. 7, investigations 9, file folder 4, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
26. Herbert J. Kreitman to Leonard Hayflick, September 30, 1976, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, NIH; Richard J. Riseberg, memo to Dr. Fredrickson and Mr. Schriver, “Subject: Cell Associates, Inc. v. NIH,” November 2, 1978, investigations 9, folder 3, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, NIH; Nicholas Wade, “Despite the Length of Hayflick’s Letter,” Science 202 (1978): 136.
27. Leonard Hayflick, interview with the author, March 3, 2013.
28. Stanley A. Plotkin to Leonard Hayflick, May 27, 1976, file folder “Correspondence-H,” Stanley Plotkin private papers.
29. Hayflick Rebuttal to Schriver Report, 1–65.
30. Schriver Rebuttal to Hayflick Rebuttal, 1–121.
31. Wade, “Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,” 41.
32. Schriver Report, 1.
33. Cell Associates v. National Institute [sic] of Health, 7.
34. “Human Cancer Cell Reconstruction and Transformation,” 1 R01 CA18456-01, from 01/01/76 through 12/31/80, investigations 9, file folder 1, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health; Donald G. Murphy letter to Leonard Hayflick, July 30, 1976, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 3.
35. Peter Libassi, memo to Thomas Morris and Donald Fredrickson, April 23, 1978, p. 2, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
36. Richard J. Riseberg, “Chronology,” 4, attachment to Riseberg letter to Donald Fredrickson, January 6, 1978, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
37. Leonard Hayflick to Donald Fredrickson, November 8, 1978. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
38. Richard J. Riseberg, memo to Robert N. Butler, “Subject: Application for Research Grant—Dr. Hayflick,” 1–2, August 24, 1977, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2. The full Riseberg sentence reads: “It is my view, therefore, that there is no sound legal basis for rendering Dr. Hayflick categorically ineligible to serve as principal investigator on any NIH research grants.”
39. Bet
ty H. Pickett, memo to Donald Murphy, July 27, 1977. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
40. Ibid.; Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
41. Leon Jacobs, “Memorandum, Subject: Hayflick,” December 8, 1977, Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 3.
42. Thomas D. Morris (inspector general), memo to the Hayflick File, “Subject: Meeting of January 9, 1978,” Office of the Director, NIH, Directors’ Files, investigations 9, folder 2.
43. Thomas D. Morris, memo to the Hayflick File, April 11, 1978. Courtesy of Leonard Hayflick.
44. Mary Miers, note to Dr. Malone, July 16, 1981, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
45. Richard Riseberg, memo to Special Assistant to the Director, NIH, “Proposed Basis of Settlement in the Cell Associates Case,” November 9, 1979, investigations 9, folder 2, Directors’ Files, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
Chapter Twenty-three: The Vaccine Race
1. Marcel Baltazard and Mehdi Ghodssi, “Prevention of Human Rabies: Treatment of Persons Bitten by Rabid Wolves in Iran,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 10, no. 5 (1954): 798.
2. Mahmoud Bahmanyar et al., “Successful Protection of Humans Exposed to Rabies Infection: Postexposure Treatment with the New Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine and Antirabies Serum,” Journal of the American Medical Association 236, no. 24 (1976): 2751–54.
3. T. J. Wiktor, S. A. Plotkin, and H. Koprowski, “Development and Clinical Trials of the New Human Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture (Human Diploid Cell) Origin,” Developments in Biological Standardization 40 (1978): 3–9.
4. T. J. Wiktor et al., “Immunogenicity of Concentrated and Purified Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture Origin,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 131 (1969): 799–805.
5. H. Koprowski, “In Vitro Production of Antirabies Virus Vaccine,” in International Symposium on Rabies, Talloires 1965, Symposium Series on Immunobiological Standards, vol. 1 (Basel and New York: Karger, 1966), 363–64.
The Vaccine Race Page 55