by Kai Bird
23. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 649.
24. Charles W. Thayer, The Unquiet Germans, pp. 234–35.
25. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 458.
26. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, pp. 646, 653.
27. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” pp. 459–60.
28. Eugene Davidson, The Trial of the Germans (New York: Collier, 1966), p. 255.
29. McCloy to Javits, 4/18/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
30. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 649.
31. Ibid., pp. 656–57.
32. Christopher Simpson, Blowhack: America’s Recruitment of Nazis and Its Effects on the Cold War, p. 191.
33. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 445.
34. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 654.
35. Ibid.
36. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, p. 6.
37. Wellington Long, The New Nazis of Germany (Philadelphia: Chilton, 1968), p. 29.
38. Tragically, the one Krupp director who had been an anti-Nazi, Ewald Löser, was left off the clemency list in what McCloy later called a “dreadful mistake.” Löser had risked his life in several conspiracies to get rid of Hitler, including the ill-fated July 20 plot. (Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, pp. 652, 434–35.)
39. Ibid., pp. 659–62.
40. NYT, Aug. 17, 1950; Simpson, Blowhack, p. 192.
41. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 642.
42. Ibid., p. 652.
43. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 516. Schwartz cites an interview with Abs as evidence of the “importance of the Krupp pardon to German economic leaders.”
44. Ibid., p. 462.
45. Transcript of Jan. 9, 1951, HICOG staff meeting, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
46. McCloy to Judge David W. Peck, 2/5/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
47. There were three capital cases in which the Peck Panel recommended the death penalty but McCloy nevertheless commuted the sentences to life imprisonment. In at least two of these cases, the defendants claimed they had evaded orders to round up and kill Jews. Both the Nuremberg tribunal and the Peck Panel dismissed this defense, and nowhere in McCloy’s HICOG Papers is there any indication of the “new evidence” on which he decided to commute these death penalties.
48. Landsberg, “A Documentary Report,” p. 9, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
49. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, p. 74.
50. McCloy cable to State Department, 3/5/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
51. Report of the Advisory Board (Peck Panel), p. 8, DOS FOIA.
52. Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals, vol. IV: “The Einsatzguppen Case,” p. 559.
53. Nor was there any consistency in McCloy’s application of this criterion for clemency. Otto Ohlendorf, one of the men who McCloy said should die, had himself, for a time in the summer of 1941, resisted carrying out a Himmler order to execute a large number of Jews near Odessa. (Robert E. Conant, Justice at Nuremberg (New York: Harper & Row, 1983).
54. J.M. Raymond to Robert Bowie, 9/11/50, DOS FOIA, no. 123.
55. Report of the Advisory Board on Clemency, p. 24, DOS FOIA, no. 123.
56. Excerpt From H. A. Byroade’s testimony, House Appropriations Committee hearing, 2/28/51, DOS FOIA no. 123.
57. Transcript of staff meeting, 1/9/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
58. John M. Raymond memo, “Memorandum Regarding Review of Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings,” June 29, 1950, DOS FOIA, no. 123.
59. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 463; Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, p. 72.
60. On the contrary, Adenauer’s closest aide, Herbert Blankenborn, went so far as to submit a memorandum to McCloy questioning his judgment in the Pohl case and in two of the Einsatzgruppen cases, involving Erich Naumann and Werner Braune. Blankenhorn’s memo displayed utter ignorance of the facts in all three of these cases, and had to be dismissed out of hand. (Memorandum re: Blankenhorn memo of Feb. 12, 1951, 2/22/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA [Suitland].)
61. McCloy to Cardinal Frings, 3/15/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
62. McCloy to Axel Kolbe, 5/15/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
63. NYT, Feb. 20, 1951.
64. Frankfurter to McCloy, 3/5/51, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
65. McCloy to Frankfurter, 7/11/51, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
66. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 457; Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 658.
67. Jack Fishman, Long Knives and Short Memories: Lives and Crimes of the 7 Nazi Leaders Sentenced at Nuremberg (New York: Richardson & Steirman, 1986), pp. 176–77, 306, 388.
68. Matthias Schmidt, Albert Speer: The End of a Myth (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984).
NINETEEN: NEGOTIATING AN END TO OCCUPATION
1. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation, p. 589.
2. Thomas Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance: John J. McCloy and the Allied High Commission in the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949–52,” unpublished thesis, Department of History, Harvard University, June 1965, pp. 419–20.
3. Memorandum by Mr. McCloy, September 4,1951, Paris, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
4. Richard J. Barnet, The Alliance: America-Europe-Japan, Makers of the Postwar World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), p. 137.
5. Washington Star, Nov. 4, 1951.
6. WP, Dec. 18, 1951.
7. McCloy cable, personal for Byroade, 8/28/51, DOS FOIA.
8. McCloy to Department of State, 11/6/51, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
9. D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins: 1917–1960, vol. I, p. 517.
10. The Times (London), Jan. 13, 1952.
11. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 589.
12. Ibid., p. 591.
13. Ibid., p. 593.
14. Ibid., p. 594.
15. Ibid., p. 605.
16. HICOG staff meeting, 3/11/52, p. 1, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
17. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 618.
18. Wolfram F. Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy, p. 152.
19. Ibid., p. 154.
20. Alan Brinkley, “The Most Influential Private Citizen in America: Minister Without Portfolio,” Harper’s, February 1983, p. 40.
21. Acheson, Present at the Creation, p. 640; Dean Acheson, Sketches from Life of Men I Have Known, p. 178.
22. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 626.
23. Edwin Hartrich, The Fourth and Richest Reich: How the Germans Conquered the Postwar World, p. 152.
24. McCloy later admitted as much to Acheson: “The final conventions bear little resemblance to those which were initially proposed, and the differences are primarily due to Allied concessions to the German negotiators and to Allied recognition that in the new relationship the Federal Republic was justified in demanding full equality.” (Acheson, Present at the Creation, p. 640.)
25. Lily Gardner Feldman, The Special Relationship Between West Germany and Israel (Winchester, Mass.: Allen & Unwin, 1984), pp. 62–65; Nahum Goldmann, The Autobiography of Nahum Goldmann: Sixty Years of Jewish Life (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969), pp. 265–67.
26. Walter LaFeber, America, Russia and the Cold War: 1945–1975 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1976), p. 132.
27. Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 645, 647.
28. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 628; The Times (London), May 24, 1952.
29. McCloy cable to State Department, 5/2/52, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
30. Henry A. Kissinger, “Notes on Germany,” 1952, records of the Psychological Strategy Board, HST (courtesy of Dennis Bilger).
31. Hanrieder, Germany, America, Europe, pp. 156, 162.
32. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 659.
33. Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, June 12, 195
2.
34. New York Herald Tribune, June 14, 1952.
35. Schwartz, “From Occupation to Alliance,” p. 629.
36. C. L. Sulzberger, A Long Row of Candles, p. 950.
37. Closing remarks by Mr. John J. McCloy, Third U.S. Resident Officers’ Conference, McCloy HICOG Papers, NA (Suitland).
38. Shep Stone to Paul Hoffman, 8/29/52, Hoffman Papers, HST.
39. Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), p. 136; Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers: An American Dynasty, p. 271.
40. McCloy interview, Sept. 14, 1984; Hoopes, Devil and Dulles, pp. 135–37; see also McCloy oral-history interview, 12/18/70, p. 18, DDE.
BOOK FOUR
TWENTY: CHAIRMAN OF THE CHASE MANHATTAN BANK: 1953–60
1. NYT, n.d. (Jan. 1953).
2. Crawford Wheeler, ed., “The Chase Manhattan Story;” McCloy oral-history interview, 2/63, p. 307, CMB.
3. NYT, Dec. 7, 1952.
4. McCloy to Arthur A. Kimball, 1/5/53, DDE.
5. Frankfurter to McCloy, 1/2/53; McCloy to Frankfurter, 1/19/53; Frankfurter to McCloy, 1/22/53, Frankfurter Papers, LOC; NYT, Jan. 3, 1953; Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation, pp. 711-13.
6. John J. McCloy, The Challenge to American Foreign Policy; NYT, Jan. 15, 1953.
7. Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 5, 1953; Washington Star, July 19, 1953.
8. McCloy, Challenge, pp. 79-80.
9. “McCloy of the Chase,” Fortune, June 1953, p. 141; McCloy oral history, 2/63, pp. 308-10, CMB.
10. NYT, n.d. (Jan. 1953).
11. John Donald Wilson, The Chase: The Chase Manhattan Bank, NA., 1945–1985 (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1986), pp. 44–45.
12. NYT, n.d. (Jan. 1953).
13. “McCloy of the Chase,” p. 141; McCloy oral history, 2/63, p. 310, CMB.
14. “McCloy of the Chase,” p. 141.
15. Ibid.
16. Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. had for many years been closely aligned with Rockefeller interests through reciprocal directorships with Chase National Bank. See Philip H. Burch, Jr., Elites in American History: The New Deal to the Carter Administration, vol. Ill, p. 16.
17. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 54–55.
18. Ibid., p. 51; George Champion oral history, 7/7, 7/12/79, p. 46, CMB.
19. George Champion oral history, 7/7, 7/12/79, p. 59, CMB.
20. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 55–56.
21. Victor E. Rockhill oral history, 9/13, 10/5/79, p. 22, CMB.
22. Ibid., p. 22.
23. Wilson, The Chase, p. 56.
24. John J. McCloy oral history, 2/63, p. 316, CMB.
25. Ibid., pp. 317–18.
26. The Dartmouth case, argued before the Supreme Court by Daniel Webster, established that the federal or state government could not abrogate contractual rights between private parties. Though the case has never been overturned, the courts have implicitly recognized, particularly since the New Deal, the right of the government to regulate certain private contractual relationships.
27. Wilson, The Chase, p. 61.
28. Alvin Moscow, The Rockefeller Inheritance (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977), p. 218.
29. Wall Street Journal, Jan. 14, 1955.
30. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 64, 67.
31. WP, Jan. 26, 1955; NYT, Jan. 26, 1955.
32. Wall Street Journal, July 6, 1955.
33. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 208. The letter cited is dated July 25, 1945.
34. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 70, 91. In 1960, Nelson Rockefeller alone held eighteen thousand shares of Chase Manhattan stock.
35. McCloy to Frankfurter, 3/28/55, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
36. Harold van B. Cleveland and Thomas F. Huertas, Citibank: 1812–1970 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 239–41.
37. Wilson, The Chase, p. 73.
38. Ibid., p. 72.
TWENTY-ONE: McCLOY, McCARTHYISM, AND THE EARLY EISENHOWER PRESIDENCY
1. NYT, Jan. 27, 1953; James B. Conant, My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), pp. 536–39.
2. NYT, April 3, 1953.
3. Telford Taylor, Grand Inquest (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), p. 82.
4. NYT, April 4, 1953.
5. Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century, pp. 484, 499.
6. Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency (New York: Basic Books, 1982), p. 169.
7. Manchester Guardian, April 9, 1953.
8. NYT, April 11, 1953.
9. Manchester Guardian, April 9, 1953.
10. Lately Thomas, When Even Angels Wept: An Objective Reappraisal of the Senator Joseph McCarthy Affair (New York: William Morrow, 1973), p. 313. Benjamin Buttenwieser claims that at the time he and McCloy also received reports that HICOG electronic surveillance of Cohn and Schine’s hotel room revealed evidence of homosexual behavior, or what Buttenwieser euphemistically called “pillow fights.” (Benjamin Buttenwieser interview, July 15, 1982.)
11. NYT, May 13, 1953.
12. John J. McCloy to the president, 5/26/53, DDE.
13. NYT, May 27, 1953.
14. Ibid., June 11, 1953.
15. Drew Pearson, “Washington Merry-Go-Round,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, March 13, 1954.
16. NYT, June 15, 1953.
17. Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times, p. 251.
18. Eisenhower diary, 1/10/57, Eisenhower Archives.
19. One such shipment, in December 1953, amounted to 940 pounds of prime rib, sirloin strips, lamb racks, smoked bacon, sausage, shrimp, walnuts, and Texas Ruby Red grapefruit. (Amos G. Carter to Eisenhower, 12/29/53, Eisenhower Archives.)
20. A mark of their friendship was the fact that Eisenhower had once entrusted Richardson with his life savings. Sometime in 1951, he gave Richardson $20,000 to invest in one of the oil man’s ventures. Late that year, at a time when he was publicly denying any intention to run for the presidency, he had second thoughts and wrote Richardson to return the money without any of the profit that might already have accrued. He told Richardson that a “public official should, under no circumstances, be involved in anything that might even look unreasonably profitable. . . .” (Eisenhower to Richardson, 12/26/51, DDE.)
21. Harry A. Bullís memo, 6/22/53, “Dinner with President Eisenhower at the White House,” DDE. For evidence that McCloy on this or some previous occasion had urged Eisenhower to defend his civil servants, see McCloy to Foster Dulles, 7/13/53, DDE.
22. Richardson to Eisenhower, 7/2/53; Eisenhower to Richardson, 8/8/53, DDE.
23. NYT, Aug. 29, 1953, June 12, 1953.
24. Conant, My Several Lives, pp. 576–77; WP, June 27, 1953.
25. McCloy to Foster Dulles, 7/13/53; Dulles to McCloy, 7/20/53, DDE.
26. William P. Rogers to J. Edgar Hoover, 12/21/53, DDE; Webster/Eisenhower letters, 7/17/53, 8/7/53, DDE.
27. FBI memo, 11/21/52, quoting Nichols memo to Toison, 11/5/52, FBI FOIA document, file no. 94–4sub4666.
28. FBI memo, 12/27/50, quotes 9/28/45 anonymous letter to Truman, FBI FOIA document, file no. 121–27291. In the summer of 1953, one informant reported to the Bureau that she had had an argument with Ellen McCloy, who had told her that “the Russians were a grand people, intelligent, kind and considerate.” (FBI memo, 7/8/53, p. 10, FBI FOIA document, file no. 116–382-159.) One can see from McCloy’s FBI security file that, throughout the postwar period, the Bureau repeatedly dredged up the fact that McCloy had vigorously defended his decision to give officer commissions to some American communists during the war.
29. FBI memo, Jones to Deloach, 12/1/60, quoting FBI memos from 1945 and 1950, FBI FOIA document, file no. 94–4Sub4666. In 1955, Hoover himself scrawled on a security report, “McCloy is no friend of the F.B.I.” (FBI memo, 4/8/55, FBI FOIA document, File No. 94–4sub4666. Hoover’s dislike of McCloy clearly stemmed from the lawyer’s championing of a central intelligence agency and his willin
gness to second-guess Hoover’s judgment on various security issues during the war.
30. “. . . Mr. McCloy does considerable work for Mr. [Allen] Dulles.” (Nease memo to Toison, 8/4/58, FBI FOIA document, file no. 94–4sub4666.
31. Sidney Zion, The Autobiography of Roy Cohn (Secaucus, N.J.: Lyle Stuart, 1988), p. 61 ; Nicholas von Hoffman, Citizen Cohn: The Life and Times of Roy Cohn (New York: Doubleday, 1988), pp. 123–24, 282–84.
32. David M. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense (New York: Free Press, 1983), p. 257; Richard Gid Powers, Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover; p. 318.
33. Westbrook Pegler to Lewis Douglas, n.d., LD. For background on Anthony Panuch’s charges, see William F. Buckley, Jr., and L. Brent Bozell, McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1954), pp. 234–36. Pegler didn’t know it, but, as high commissioner, McCloy had once quietly refused to disinvite Helen Buttenwieser from accompanying him on his official plane back to Germany, even though Helen was at the time serving as a defense counsel to Alger Hiss. She thought this little act of courtesy displayed considerable political courage on McCloy’s part. (Helen Buttenwieser interview, March 17, 1983.)