by Kai Bird
28. Eugene Black interview, July 24, 1984.
29. Lodge to Hoover, 12/17/56, State Department cable released to DOS FOIA, 1/30/85.
30. Lodge to secretary of state, 12/11/56, State cable, DOS FOIA, 1/30/85.
31. Memorandum of conversation, McCloy, 4/4/57, State Department memo, DOS FOIA; CFR meeting, 4/5/57.
32. Copeland, Game of Nations, p. 130.
33. CFR meeting, John J. McCloy, “Report on the Suez Problem,” 4/5/57, CFR.
34. John J. McCloy oral history, p. 328, CMB.
35. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 106–7; John J. McCloy oral history, pp. 330–31, CMB; Victor E. Rockhill oral history, p. 111, CMB.
36. David Rockefeller made his first major purchase of a painting, Renoir’s Gabriel, in 1951, for $50,000. (See Alvin Moscow, The Rockefeller Inheritance, p. 224.)
37. John J. McCloy oral history, p. 339, CMB; Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers: An American Dynasty, p. 408.
38. Wilson, The Chase, pp. 110–11; John J. McCloy oral history, 2/63, p. 351, CMB; Moscow, Rockefeller Inheritance, p. 232.
39. Moscow, Rockefeller Inheritance, p. 238; Victor E. Rockhill oral history, pp. 112–13, CMB.
40. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 312.
41. Newsday, Jan. 9, 1957; John J. McCloy oral history, 2/63, pp. 348–49, CMB; George Champion oral history, pp. 53,67, CMB; Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 408.
42. Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 318.
43. Wilson, The Chase, p. 35; Collier and Horowitz, p. 318.
44. Christian Herter memo to Douglas Dillon, 6/4/57, DDE.
45. Moscow, Rockefeller Inheritance, pp. 214–16, 226; Collier and Horowitz, The Rockefellers, p. 312.
46. Philip H. Burch, Jr., Elites in American History: The New Deal to the Carter Administration, vol. Ill, p. 125.
47. Minutes of the 106th meeting of the board of directors of the CFR, 10/28/54, AH.
48. Minutes of the 107th meeting of the CFR, 2/28/55, AH.
49. Robert D. Schulzinger, The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs, p. 124; Annual Report of the Council on Foreign Relations, 1955–1956 (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1956).
50. Minutes of the 106th annual meeting of the board of directors of the CFR, 10/28/54, AH; “Contributions and Pledges Received to date . . . ,” 1/7/53, confidential CFR document; Walter H. Mallory to Averell Harriman, 4/25/55; CFR document, “Comparison of Budget with Actual Receipts and Disbursements, 4/30/55”; Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, p. 96.
51. CFR Annual Report, 1955–1956, p. 1.
52. George S. Franklin, Jr., “Notice to Members,” 12/63, LD.
53. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, pp. 42–43.
54. Lewis Douglas to Frank Altschul, 12/7/53, LD. This letter was apparently written but never mailed to Altschul.
55. Leonard Silk and Mark Silk, The American Establishment (New York: Basic Books, 1980), p. 184; Stephen R. Graubard, Kissinger: Portrait of a Mind (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973), pp. 60–62; John Kenneth Galbraith, “Staying Awake at the Council on Foreign Relations,” The Washington Monthly, Sept. 1984, p. 42; NYT, Oct. 30, 1982; CFR Annual Report, 1955–1956.
56. Silk and Silk, American Establishment, p. 184.
57. CFR Annual Report, 1955–1956, p. 9.
58. Ibid., p. 1.
59. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, pp. 38–40; CFR Annual Report, 1955–56, p. 7.
60. McCloy oral history, p. 26, DDE; Schulzinger, Wise Men of Foreign Affairs, pp. 150–51.
61. NYT, Oct. 14, 1954.
62. Schulzinger, Wise Men of Foreign Affairs, pp. 153–54.
63. Marvin Kalb and Bernard Kalb, Kissinger (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), pp. 50–51; Graubard, Portrait of a Mind, p. 60.
64. James Laughlin memo to Don Price, 10/15/53, Rowan Gaither Files, box III, “Intercultural Publications,” 3/5/53–1/8/55, FF; Kissinger-Milton Katz correspondence, 6/15/53 et al., Grant File, PH 52–86, PA 54–137, roll no. 1027, FF.
65. Confidential study-group report, digest of discussion, “Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy,” 2/21/55, CFR.
66. By the time the book came out, Kissinger had already urged one such limited war in the Middle East. One day, while working on the book, he happened to be in Washington when the Czech arms deal to Nasser’s Egypt was announced. “My recommendation at the time,” he later told a symposium hosted by Bill Casey’s Research Institute of America, “was that the Soviet [sic] arms deal had to be stopped by all means—even by the use of force.” (Confidential transcript of remarks by Henry A. Kissinger before the board of the Research Institute of America,” 10/57, DDE.)
67. Graubard, Portrait of a Mind, pp. 80–104; Schulzinger, Wise Men of Foreign Affairs, pp. 155–56.
68. McCloy oral history, pp. 21, 26, DDE.
69. Henry Cabot Lodge to Eisenhower, 7/25/57; Ann Whitman diary, 7/31/57; Eisenhower memo to acting secretary of state, 7/31/57, DDE.
70. McCloy interview, Sept. 14, 1984.
71. Graubard, Portrait of a Mind, pp. 106–10; Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), p. 127; Moscow, Rockefeller Inheritance, p. 172; David Landau, Kissinger: The Uses of Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972), pp. 53–54; Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p. 4.
72. Michael R. Beschloss, May-Day: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), p. 148.
73. Kaplan, Wizards of Armageddon, pp. 135–36.
74. “Deterrence and Survival in the Nuclear Age,” report to the president by the Security Resources Panel of the Science Advisory Committee, 11/7/57, DDE.
75. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 434.
76. Memorandum of conference with the president, 11/4/57, DDE; Richard Barnet, The Alliance: America-Europe-Japan, Makers of the Postwar World, p. 153; Kaplan, Wizards of Armageddon, p. 152.
77. “Deterrence and Survival in the Nuclear Age,” 11/7/57, DDE.
78. 1.1. Rabi to Gordon Gray “re advantages of an agreement to cease nuclear testing, portions exempted, MR 81–429 No. 1,” 10/28/57, Ann Whitman file, DDE.
79. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 452.
80. Ibid., p. 447.
81. Tyler Abell, ed., Drew Pearson: Diaries 1949–1959, p. 417; Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 443; Ann Whitman diary, 1/24/58, DDE; Christian A. Herter memo to the secretary, 12/27/57, DDE.
82. NYT, Feb. 27, 1958; London Times, Feb. 28, 1958; NYT, March 6, 1958.
83. Foster Dulles to president, 4/30/58, DDE; Ann Whitman diary, 4/11/58, DDE; Philip J. Farley to General Smith, 4/3/58, DDE; NYT, April 9, 1958; Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 453; NYT, April 27, 1958; Robert A. Divine, Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 180–81, 210.
84. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 438.
85. McCloy to president, 1/10/58; Eisenhower to Mrs. John J. McCloy, 1/13/58, DDE.
86. C. D. Jackson log, 6/10/58, DDE.
87. Ibid.
88. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, pp. 477–80.
89. Peter Thompson, “Bilderberg and the West,” in Holly Sklar, ed., Trilateralism: The Trilateral Commission and Elite Planning for World Management (Boston: Southend Press, 1980), p. 184.
90. Ibid., p. 164.
91. Ibid., p. 168.
92. Ibid., p. 167.
93. Ibid., pp. 170–74.
94. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, p. 80.
95. Bilderberg Group, Buxton Conference, 9/13–15/58, preliminary report; C. D. Jackson to Dr. Joseph H. Retinger, 10/23/58, with attached comments by Jackson, DDE.
96. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, pp. 484–85.
97. Bilderberg Group, Buxton Conference, preliminary report, 9/13–15/58, DDE.
98. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, p. 209.
99. William Hoffman, David: Report on a Rockefeller (New York: Lyle Stua
rt, 1971), p. 127.
100. Robert Paul Browder and Thomas G. Smith, Independent: A Biography of Lewis W. Douglas, pp. 390–91.
101. McCloy oral history, 12/18/70, p. 24, DDE.
102. Bilderberg Group, Buxton Conference, preliminary report, 9/13–15/58, DDE.
103. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 485.
104. Kissinger, White House Years, p. 165.
105. Eisenhower phone calls, 9/26/58, DDE.
106. WP, Oct. 4, 1958.
107. McCloy memo to Foster Dulles, 9/27/58, DDE.
108. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 485.
109. Henry Kissinger’s account of his 1971 Chinese initiative gives no credit to his colleagues in the CFR for having advocated a rapprochement with China as early as 1955. Indeed, Kissinger claims sole intellectual authorship for recognizing that the Chinese themselves had a strategic incentive to move toward the U.S. as a counterweight to the Soviet Union. (Kissinger, White House Years, p. 165.)
110. Herter-Eisenhower telcon, 11/22/58, DDE.
111. McCloy to Eisenhower, 11/28/58, DDE.
112. Ann Whitman diary, 12/6/58, DDE.
113. Herter to Gordon Gray, 12/20/58, with attachments, DDE.
114. Memo of meeting with the president, 6/29/59, DDE.
115. Al Gruenther to Eisenhower, 2/14/59, DDE.
116. Drew Pearson syndicated column, 2/13/59.
117. Eisenhower later told Livingston Merchant that the only four men he considered for the post were Merchant, Herter, Robert Anderson, and Doug Dillon. He may also have considered Henry Cabot Lodge and Allen Dulles. (Eisenhower to Merchant, 12/28/60, DDE; Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 524.
118. McCloy to Frankfurter, 5/12/59, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
119. Beschloss, May-Day, pp. 244–46.
120. Jonathan Steele, “The Forgotten Hope for a Safer Europe,” Manchester Guardian, Jan. 29, 1982.
121. “Report of Activities, 1958–1959,” American Council on Germany, AH.
122. Later that year, Khrushchev told Averell Harriman, “We will not agree to your taking over Eastern Germany, and I know you will not agree to a united Germany that does not have your system. In fact, no one wants a united Germany. De Gaulle told us so; the British have told us so; and Adenauer himself when he was here said he was not interested in unification. Why then, do you insist on talking about it?” (Confidential conversation of Governor Harriman with Mr. Khrushchev, June 23, 1959, AH.)
123. Benjamin B. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves: Jewish Forced Labor and the Quest for Compensation, p. 76; William Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, pp. 5, 663.
124. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 735.
125. Ibid., p. 754.
126. Benjamin B. Ferencz interview, Sept. 15, 1984. Ferencz sent McCloy a long memo documenting Krupp’s personal guilt. He bluntly told him that Krupp “did in fact exercise effective control of the Krupp company and all its enterprises, that they deliberately sought concentration camp labor for the Krupp industries, that there was absolutely no requirement that such labor be used, that the inmates were employed as slaves without pay under the most inhuman conditions and that Alfried Krupp was personally aware of all this, and encouraged it.” McCloy did not respond. (Benjamin B. Ferencz to McCloy, June 23, 1959, with attached “Memorandum: Claims of Former Slave Laborers Against Alfried Krupp and the Krupp Company,” copy given to author by Ferencz.)
127. Ferencz interview, Sept. 15, 1984.
128. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 755.
129. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, p. 78.
130. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, pp. 674–79, 732; Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, p. 85.
131. Ferencz, Less Than Slaves, pp. 82–83.
132. Ibid., p. 86.
133. Manchester, The Arms of Krupp, p. 756.
134. NYT, Oct. 11, 1960.
135. Frankfurter to McCloy, 11/2/59, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
136. McCloy to Frankfurter, 10/16/59, Frankfurter Papers, LOC.
137. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), pp. 288–90.
138. C. D. Jackson to McCloy, 6/12/59, DDE; Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 103.
139. Meyer, Facing Reality, p. 102.
140. C. D. Jackson to Frank Stanton, 7/13/59, DDE.
141. NYT, Feb. 21, 1967.
142. C. D. Jackson to Cord Meyer, 12/16/58; Samuel S. Walker, Jr., to C. D. Jackson, 2/2/59; Gloria Steinem to C. D. Jackson, 3/19/59, DDE.
143. When this covert operation was revealed by Ramparts magazine in 1967, Steinem told The New York Times that she approved the Agency’s role. “Far from being shocked by this involvement, I was happy to find some liberals in government in those days who were far-sighted and cared enough to get Americans of all political views to the Festival.” {NYT, Feb. 21, 1967.) Steinem’s definition of a liberal then included such young men as Zbigniew Brzezinski, an assistant professor at Harvard, and Tom Garrity, a lawyer with Donovan & Leisure. She arranged through Jackson funding for both men to attend the festival. (She also tried to get Michael Harrington to attend, but he dropped out at the last minute.) Steinem’s politics then appeared to be typical of many 1950s anticommunist liberals. She told the Times in 1967, “I was never asked to report on other Americans or assess foreign nationals I had met.” But in fact, in response to a query from C. D. Jackson, Steinem wrote Jackson in great detail on the left-wing affiliations of various Americans associated with the allegedly Soviet-backed U.S. Festival Committee. (Gloria Steinem to C. D. Jackson, 3/19/59, DDE; NYT, Feb. 21, 1967.)
144. S. S. Walker to C. D. Jackson, “Status Report,” DDE.
145. Samuel Walker eventually made a career out of publishing, becoming president of Walker & Co., a New York City publishing firm founded in the same year as the CIA funded Publications Development Corporation.
In Vienna, he and Steinem worked well together. Their organizing efforts led to a split in the official American delegation. Their propaganda machine pumped out four hundred thousand copies of a daily newspaper for three weeks with articles by McCloy, Irving Kristol, Czeslav Milosz, Hubert Humphrey, Willy Brandt, Isaac Deutscher, and a broad range of other intellectuals and politicians. They also distributed some thirty-six thousand books by such left-of-center but anti-Soviet writers as George Orwell and Milovan Djilas. In the midst of it all, Walker reported back to Jackson, “Gloria’s group continues to do yeoman service, distributing books etc. to the point where the cry has gone up ‘Never before have so many Young Republicans distributed so much Socialist literature with such zeal.’ ” Walker praised Steinem’s “female intuition” and wrote, “Gloria is all you said she was, and then some. She is operating on 16 synchronized cylinders and has charmed the natives. . . .” (C. D. Jackson to Cord Meyer, 7/14/59, with attached Walker diary; Walker to Jackson, 7/31/59, DDE.)
146. The Chase officer in question was Alfred W. Barth, a vice-president and the number-two man in charge of Chase’s international division in 1959. (See C. D. Jackson Papers, file Youth Festival—Financial, box 95, DDE.) Barth evidently had acquired expertise in such laundering operations when he conducted banking business for the U.S. government in Spain during World War II. (See Wilson, The Chase, p. 371.)
147. John Ranelagh, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA from Wild Bill Donovan to William Casey, p. 249.
148. W. Averell Harriman, American and Russia in a Changing World: A Half Century of Personal Observation (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971), p. 61.
149. Ibid.
150. “Reception for Khrushchev,’” guest list 9/17/59, AH.
151. Harriman, America and Russia, p. 61. Khrushchev once described all American politicians as “representatives of the Duponts, Rockefellers and Harrimans.” (Mark Frankland, Khrushchev [New York: Stein & Day, 1967], p. 160.)
152. Beschloss, May-Day, p. 197.
153. These comments reflected a general assumption among such peop
le that nothing was so dangerous as a Russian capable of making himself seem like a reasonable fellow to the American people. Any “possible easing of tension as a result of this [Khrushchev’s] trip,” said Herod, worried him. It made it all the more difficult to rouse the American people to do what was necessary to fight the Cold War. Herod and Pete Jones actually hoped Khrushchev would display a bit of his temper, if only to “awaken some Americans to the kind of shrewdness . . . which we have to deal with in the Kremlin. . . .” (W. Alton Jones to A. Harriman, 9/18/59; W. R. Herod to A. Harriman, 9/19/59, AH.)
154. Averell Harriman to George S. Franklin, Jr., 12/9/59; W. R. Herod to A. Harriman, 12/19/59, AH.
155. Confidential conversation of Governor Harriman with Mr. Khrushchev, June 23, 1959, AH.
156. Memorandum of meeting with the president, 2/10/60, DDE.
157. Beschloss, May-Day, pp. 152–53; Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 563.
158. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, pp. 564–67.
159. Herter to James Killian, 4/23/60; memorandum of meeting with the president, 4/27/60, DDE.
160. There is still some mystery about whether Powers’s U-2 was brought down by engine failure or a Soviet missile. But Powers’s own testimony indicates that it was a missile that disabled his plane. (Beschloss, May-Day, p. 403.)
161. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, pp. 575–76.
162. Frankland, Khrushchev, p. 169; Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 577.
163. Telegram from John J. McCloy, n.d., DDE.
164. Eisenhower to McCloy, 5/24/60, DDE.
165. Beschloss, May-Day, p. 319.
166. NYT, June 16, 1960.
167. Ambrose, Eisenhower the President, p. 580.
168. Press release, Office of Senator John F. Kennedy, 8/30/60, DDE.
169. Drew Pearson, “Washington Merry-Go-Round,” Nov. 14, 1960.
BOOK FIVE
TWENTY-THREE: ARMS CONTROL CZAR
1. Kenneth P. O’Donnell and David F. Powers with Joe McCarthy, Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye: Memories of John Fitzgerald Kennedy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970), p. 236.
2. Ibid., p. 235.
3. Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made, p. 592; David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1972), p. 15.