56For Bengal, R. Datta, Society, Economy and the Market: Commercialization in Rural Bengal, c. 1760–1800 (New Delhi, 2000); R. Harvey, Clive: The Life and Death of a British Emperor (London, 1998).
57P. Marshall, East India Fortunes: The British in Bengal in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1976), p. 179.
58J. McLane, Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 194–207.
59See N. Dirks, Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain (Cambridge, MA, 2006), pp. 15–17.
60P. Lawson, The East India Company: A History (New York, 1993).
61J. Fichter, So Great a Proffit: How the East Indies Trade Transformed Anglo-American Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 7–30.
62Letters from inhabitants of Boston complained for months afterwards about ‘the taste of their fish being altered’, raising fears that the tea ‘may have so contaminated the water in the Harbour that the fish may have contracted a disorder, not unlike the nervous complaints of the human Body’, Virginia Gazette, 5 May 1774.
63Cited by Dirks, Scandal, p. 17.
Chapter 15 – The Road to Crisis
1K. Marx, Secret Diplomatic History of the Eighteenth Century, ed. L. Hutchinson (London, 1969).
2A. Kappeler, ‘Czarist Policy toward the Muslims of the Russian Empire’, in A. Kappeler, G. Simon and G. Brunner (eds), Muslim Communities Reemerge: Historical Perspectives on Nationality, Politics, and Opposition in the Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Durham, NC, 1994), pp. 141–56; also D. Brower and E. Lazzerini, Russia’s Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917 (Bloomington, IN, 1997).
3The best general surveys of Russia’s expansion are M. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington, IN, 2002); J. Kusber, ‘“Entdecker” und “Entdeckte”: Zum Selbstverständnis von Zar und Elite im frühneuzeitlichen Moskauer Reich zwischen Europa und Asien’, Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 34 (2005), 97–115.
4J. Bell, Travels from St Petersburg in Russia to Various Parts of Asia (Glasgow, 1764), p. 29; M. Khodarkovsky, Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads 1600–1771 (London, 1992).
5A. Kahan, ‘Natural Calamities and their Effect upon the Food Supply in Russia’, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 16 (1968), 353–77; J. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600–1800 (Cambridge, MA, 1979), pp. 3–16; P. Brown, ‘How Muscovy Governed: Seventeenth-Century Russian Central Administration’, Russian History 36 (2009), 467–8.
6L. de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, ed. R. Phipps, 4 vols (New York, 1892), 1, p. 179.
7J. Cole, Napoleon’s Egypt: Invading the Middle East (New York, 2007), pp. 213–15.
8C. de Gardane, Mission du Général Gardane en Perse (Paris, 1865). For France and Persia in this period in general, and the attempt to use it as a bridge to India, I. Amini, Napoléon et la Perse: les relations franco-persanes sous le Premier Empire dans le contexte des rivalités entre la France et la Russie (Paris, 1995).
9Ouseley to Wellesley, 30 April 1810, FO 60/4.
10Ouseley to Wellesley, 30 November 1811, FO 60/6.
11For this episode see A. Barrett, ‘A Memoir of Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph d’Arcy, R.A., 1780–1848’, Iran 43 (2005), 241–7.
12Ibid., 248–53.
13Ouseley to Castlereagh, 16 January 1813, FO 60/8.
14Abul Hassan to Castlereagh, 6 June 1816, FO 60/11.
15A. Postnikov, ‘The First Russian Voyage around the World and its Influence on the Exploration and Development of Russian America’, Terrae Incognitae 37 (2005), 60–1.
16S. Fedorovna, Russkaya Amerika v ‘zapiskakh’ K. T. Khlebnikova (Moscow, 1985).
17M. Gammer, ‘Russian Strategy in the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan, 1825–59’, in M. Broxup (ed.), The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance towards the Muslim World (New York, 1992), pp. 47–61; for Shamil, S. Kaziev, Imam Shamil (Moscow, 2001).
18For translations of the poems, see M. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin and Four Tales from Russia’s Southern Frontier, tr. R. Clark (London, 2005), pp. 131–40; L. Kelly, Lermontov: Tragedy in the Caucasus (London, 2003), pp. 207–8.
19M. Orlov, Kapituliatsiia Parizha. Politicheskie sochinenniia. Pis’ma (Moscow, 1963), p. 47.
20P. Chaadev, Lettres philosophiques, 3 vols (Paris, 1970), pp. 48–57.
21S. Becker, ‘Russia between East and West: The Intelligentsia, Russian National Identity and the Asian Borderlands’, Central Asian Survey 10.4 (1991), 51–2.
22T. Levin, The Hundred Thousand Fools of God: Musical Travels in Central Asia (Bloomington, IN, 1996), pp. 13–15; Borodin’s symphonic poem is usually rendered in English as ‘In the Steppes of Central Asia’.
23J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester, 1995), pp. 154–6.
24F. Dostoevskii, What is Asia to Us?, ed. and tr. M. Hauner (London, 1992), p. 1.
25Broxup, North Caucasus Barrier, p. 47; J. Baddeley, The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus (London, 1908), pp. 152–63.
26L. Kelly, Diplomacy and Murder in Teheran: Alexandre Griboyedov and Imperial Russia’s Mission to the Shah of Persia (London, 2002). For Griboyedov’s views, see S. Shostakovich, Diplomatischeskaia deiatel’nost’ (Moscow, 1960).
27‘Peridskoe posol’stvo v Rossii 1828 goda’, Russkii Arkhiv 1 (1889), 209–60.
28Cited by W. Dalrymple, Return of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan (London, 2013), pp. 50–1.
29J. Norris, The First Afghan War 1838–42 (Cambridge, 1967); M. Yapp, Strategies of British India: Britain, Iran and Afghanistan 1798–1850 (Oxford, 1980), pp. 96–152; C. Allworth, Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule (New York, 1967), pp. 12–24.
30Palmerston to Lamb, 22 May 1838, Beauvale Papers, MS 60466; D. Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (London, 2010), p. 216.
31Palmerston to Lamb, 22 May 1838, cited in D. Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (London, 2010), p. 216.
32Palmerston to Lamb, 23 June 1838, in ibid., pp. 216–7.
33S. David, Victoria’s Wars: The Rise of Empire (London, 2006), pp. 15–47; A. Burnes, Travels into Bokhara. Being an account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary and Persia, 3 vols (London 1834). For Burnes’s murder, Dalrymple, Return of a King, pp. 30–5.
34W. Yapp, ‘Disturbances in Eastern Afghanistan, 1839–42’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 25.1 (1962), 499–523; idem, ‘Disturbances in Western Afghanistan, 1839–42’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 26.2 (1963), 288–313; Dalrymple, Return of a King, pp. 378–88.
35A. Conoly to Rawlinson 1839; see S. Brysac and K. Mayer, Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Asia (London, 2006).
36‘Proceedings of the Twentieth Anniversary Meeting of the Society’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (1843), x–xi. For Stoddart, Conolly and others like them, P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 2001).
37H. Hopkins, Charles Simeon of Cambridge (London, 1977), p. 79.
38J. Wolff, Narrative of a Mission to Bokhara: In the Years 1843–1845, 2 vols (London, 1845); for Wolff himself, H. Hopkins, Sublime Vagabond: The Life of Joseph Wolff – Missionary Extraordinary (Worthing, 1984), pp. 286–322.
39A. Levshin, Opisanie Kirgiz-Kazachʹikh, ili Kirgiz-kaisatskikh, ord i stepei (Almaty, 1996) 13, p. 297.
40Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, 11, 2, p. 381.
41R. Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882 (New Delhi, 1973), p. 27.
42O. Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade (London, 2010), p. 52.
43For France, see M. Racagni, ‘The French Economic Interests in the Ottoman Empire’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 11.3 (1980), 339–76.
44W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking, tr. A. Pottinger Saab (Oxford, 1981), pp. 113–16, 191–4.
45K. Marx, The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters
Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War (London, 1969); idem, Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx, ed. F. Wheen and J. Ledbetter (London, 2007).
46G. Ameil, I. Nathan and G.-H. Soutou, Le Congrès de Paris (1856): un événement fondateur (Brussels, 2009).
47P. Levi, ‘Il monumento dell’unità Italiana’, La Lettura, 4 April 1904; T. Kirk, ‘The Political Topography of Modern Rome, 1870–1936: Via XX Septembre to Via dell’Impero’, in D. Caldwell and L. Caldwell (eds), Rome: Continuing Encounters between Past and Present (Farnham, 2011), pp. 101–28.
48Figes, Crimea, pp. 411–24; Baumgart, Peace of Paris, pp. 113–16.
49D. Moon, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 1762–1907 (London, 2001), p. 54.
50E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’, Slavic Review 43.1 (1984), 63–82.
51For serfdom in Russia, see T. Dennison, The Institutional Framework of Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, 2011). For the banking crisis, S. Hoch, ‘Bankovskii krizis, krest’ianskaya reforma i vykupnaya operatsiya v Rossii, 1857–1861’, in L. Zakharova, B. Eklof and J. Bushnell (eds), Velikie reformy v Rossii, 1856–1874 (Moscow, 1991), pp. 95–105.
52Nikolai Miliutin, Assistant Minister of the Interior, had warned in 1856 that the abolition of serfdom was not just a priority but a necessity: there would be unrest and possibly revolution in the countryside if action was not taken, Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 722, op. 1, d. 230, cited by L. Zakharova, ‘The Reign of Alexander II: A Watershed?’, in The Cambridge History of Russia, ed. D. Lieven (Cambridge, 2006), p. 595.
53V. Fedorov, Istoriya Rossii XIX–nachala XX v. (Moscow, 1998), p. 295; P. Gatrell, ‘The Meaning of the Great Reforms in Russian Economic History’, in B. Eklof, J. Bushnell and L. Zakharovna (eds), Russia’s Great Reforms, 1855–1881 (Bloomington, IN, 1994), p. 99.
54N. Ignat’ev, Missiya v’ Khivu i Bukharu v’ 1858 godu (St Petersburg, 1897), p. 2.
55Ibid.
56Alcock to Russell, 2 August 1861, FO Confidential Print 1009 (3), FO 881/1009.
57A. Grinev, ‘Russian Politarism as the Main Reason for the Selling of Alaska’, in K. Matsuzato (ed.), Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to Discussing the Russian Empire (Sapporo, 2007), pp. 245–58.
Chapter 16 – The Road to War
1W. Mosse, ‘The End of the Crimean System: England, Russia and the Neutrality of the Black Sea, 1870–1’, Historical Journal 4.2 (1961), 164–72.
2Spectator, 14 November 1870.
3W. Mosse, ‘Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: The British Public and the War-Scare of November 1870’, Historical Journal 6.1 (1963), 38–58.
4Rumbold to Granville, 19 March 1871, FO 65/820, no. 28, p. 226; Mosse, ‘End to the Crimean System’, 187.
5Lord Granville, House of Lords, 8 February 1876, Hansard, 227, 19.
6Queen Victoria to Disraeli, Hughenden Papers, 23 July 1877; L. Knight, ‘The Royal Titles Act and India’, Historical Journal 11.3 (1968), 493.
7Robert Lowe, House of Commons, 23 March 1876, Hansard, 228, 515–16.
8Sir William Fraser, House of Commons, 16 March 1876, Hansard, 228, 111; Benjamin Disraeli, House of Commons, 23 March, Hansard, 227, 500.
9Knight, ‘Royal Titles Act’, 494.
10L. Morris, ‘British Secret Service Activity in Khorasan, 1887–1908’, Historical Journal 27.3 (1984), 662–70.
11Disraeli to Salisbury, 1 April 1877, W. Monypenny and G. Buckle (eds), The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (London, 1910–20), 6, p. 379.
12B. Hopkins, ‘The Bounds of Identity: The Goldsmid Mission and Delineation of the Perso-Afghan Border in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Global History 2.2 (2007), 233–54.
13R. Johnson, ‘“Russians at the Gates of India”? Planning the Defence of India, 1885–1900’, Journal of Military History 67.3 (2003), 705.
14Ibid., 714–18.
15General Kuropatkin’s Scheme for a Russian Advance Upon India, June 1886, CID 7D, CAB 6/1.
16Johnson, ‘“Russians at the Gates of India”’, 734–9.
17G. Curzon, Russia in Central Asia in 1889 and the Anglo-Russian Question (London, 1889), pp. 314–15.
18A. Morrison, ‘Russian Rule in Turkestan and the Example of British India, c. 1860–1917’, Slavonic and East European Review 84.4 (2006), 674–6.
19B. Penati, ‘Notes on the Birth of Russian Turkestan’s Fiscal System: A View from the Fergana Oblast’’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53 (2010), 739–69.
20D. Brower, ‘Russian Roads to Mecca: Religious Tolerance and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Russian Empire’, Slavic Review 55.3 (1996), 569–70.
21M. Terent’ev, Rossiya i Angliya v Srednei Azii (St Petersburg, 1875), p. 361.
22Morrison, ‘Russian Rule in Turkestan’, 666–707.
23Dnevnik P. A. Valueva, ministra vnutrennikh del, ed. P. Zaionchkovskii, 2 vols (Moscow, 1961), 2, pp. 60–1.
24M. Sladkovskii, History of Economic Relations between Russia and China: From Modernization to Maoism (New Brunswick, 2008), pp. 119–29; C. Paine, Imperial Rivals: China, Russia and their Disputed Frontier, 1858–1924 (New York, 1996), p. 178.
25B. Anan’ich and S. Beliaev, ‘St Petersburg: Banking Center of the Russian Empire’, in W. Brumfield, B. Anan’ich and Y. Petrov (eds), Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861–1914 (Washington, DC, 2001), pp. 15–17.
26P. Stolypin, Rechy v Gosudarstvennoy Dume (1906–11) (Petrograd, 1916), p. 132.
27E. Backhouse and J. Blood, Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking (Boston, 1913), pp. 322–31.
28M. Mosca, From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China (Stanford, CA, 2013).
29R. Newman, ‘Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China: A Reconsideration’, Modern Asian Studies 29.4 (1995), 765–94.
30J. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, MA, 1991).
31C. Pagani, ‘Objects and the Press: Images of China in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, in J. Codell (ed.), Imperial Co-Histories: National Identities and the British and Colonial Press (Madison, NJ, 2003), p. 160.
32Memorandum by Lord Northbrook for the Cabinet, 20 May 1885, FO 881/5207, no. 29, p. 11. See here I. Nish, ‘Politics, Trade and Communications in East Asia: Thoughts on Anglo-Russian Relations, 1861–1907’, Modern Asian Studies 21.4 (1987), 667–78.
33D. Drube, Russo-Indian Relations, 1466–1917 (New York, 1970), pp. 215–16.
34Lord Roberts, ‘The North-West Frontier of India. An Address Delivered to the Officers of the Eastern Command on 17th November, 1905’, Royal United Services Institution Journal 49.334 (1905) 1355.
35Summary of Rittich Pamphlet on ‘Railways in Persia’, Part I, p. 2, Sir Charles Scott to the Marquess of Salisbury, St Petersburg, 2 May 1900, FO 65/1599. Also here P. Kennedy and J. Siegel, Endgame: Britain, Russia and the Final Struggle for Central Asia (London, 2002), p. 4.
36‘Memorandum by Mr. Charles Hardinge’, p. 9, to the Marquess of Salisbury, St Petersburg, 2 May 1900, FO 65/1599.
37Foreign Secretary, Simla, to Political Resident, Persian Gulf, July 1899, FO 60/615.
38R. Greaves, ‘British Policy in Persia, 1892–1903 II’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 28.2 (1965), 284–8.
39Durand to Salisbury, 27 January 1900, FO 60/630.
40Minute by the Viceroy on Seistan, 4 September 1899, FO 60/615, p. 7. For the proposed new communication networks, ‘Report on preliminary survey of the Route of a telegraph line from Quetta to the Persian frontier’, 1899, FO 60/615.
41R. Greaves, ‘Sistan in British Indian Frontier Policy’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49.1 (1986), 90–1.
42Lord Curzon to Lord Lansdowne, 15 June 1901, Lansdowne Papers, cited by Greaves, British Policy in Persia’, 295.
43Lord Salisbury to Lord Lansdowne, 18 October 1901, Lansdowne Papers, cited by Greaves, ‘British Policy in Persia’, 298.
44Lord Ellenborough, House of Lords, 5 May 1903, Hansard, 121, 1341.
45Lord Lansdowne, House of Lords, 5 May 1903, Hansard, 121, 1348.
46Greaves, ‘Sistan in British Indian Frontier Policy’, 90–102.
47British Interests in Persia, 22 January 1902, Hansard, 101, 574–628; Earl of Ronaldshay, House of Commons, 17 February 1908, Hansard, 184, 500–1.
48King Edward VII to Lansdowne, 20 October 1901, cited by S. Lee, King Edward VII, 2 vols (New York, 1935–7), 2, pp. 154–5.
49S. Gwynn, The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, 2 vols (Boston, 1929), 2, p. 85; M. Habibi, ‘France and the Anglo-Russian Accords: The Discreet Missing Link’, Iran 41 (2003), 292.
50Report of a Committee Appointed to Consider the Military Defence of India, 24 December 1901, CAB 6/1; K. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1995), p. 124.
51Stevens to Lansdowne, 12 March 1901, FO 248/733.
52Morley to Minto, 12 March 1908, cited by S. Wolpert, Morley and India, 1906–1910 (Berkeley, 1967), p. 80.
53W. Robertson to DGMI, secret, 10 November 1902, Robertson Papers, I/2/4, in Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, p. 124.
54S. Cohen, ‘Mesopotamia in British Strategy, 1903–1914’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 9.2 (1978), 171–4.
55Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 134–5.
56The Times, 21 October 1905.
57H.-U. Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, 5 vols (Munich, 2008), 3, pp. 610–12.
58C. Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (London, 2012), p. 130.
59F. Tomaszewski, A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905–1914 (Westport, CT, 2002); M. Soroka, Britain, Russia and the Road to the First World War: The Fateful Embassy of Count Aleksandr Benckendorff (1903–16) (Farnham, 2011).
60Minute of Grey, FO 371/371/26042.
61G. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon (London, 1937), p. 193.
62Hardinge to de Salis, 29 December 1908, Hardinge MSS, vol. 30.
63K. Wilson, ‘Imperial Interests in the British Decision for War, 1914: The Defence of India in Central Asia’, Review of International Studies 10 (1984), 190–2.
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