11A. Arslanian, ‘Dunstersville’s Adventures: A Reappraisal’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 12.2 (1980), 199–216; A. Simonian, ‘An Episode from the History of the Armenian–Azerbaijani Confrontation (January–February 1919)’, Iran & the Caucasus 9.1 (2005), 145–58.
12Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, pp. 175–83.
13Secretary of State to Viceroy, 5 January 1918, cited by L. Morris, ‘British Secret Missions in Turkestan, 1918–19’, Journal of Contemporary History 12.2 (1977), 363–79.
14See Morris, ‘British Secret Missions’, 363–79.
15L. Trotsky, Central Committee, Russian Communist Party, 5 August 1919, in J. Meijer (ed.), The Trotsky Papers, 2 vols (The Hague, 1964), 1, pp. 622, 624.
16Congress of the East, Baku, September 1920, tr. B. Pearce (London, 1944), pp. 25–37.
17L. Murawiec, The Mind of Jihad (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 210–23. More generally, see Ansari, ‘Pan-Islam and the Making of Early Indian Socialism’, Modern Asian Studies 20 (1986), 509–37.
18Corp. Charles Kavanagh, Unpublished diary, Cheshire Regiment Museum.
19Pobeda oktyabr’skoi revoliutsii v Uzbekistane: sbornik dokumentov, 2 vols (Tashkent, 1963–72), 1, p. 571.
20A copy of the poster appears in D. King, Red Star over Russia: A Visual History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Death of Stalin (London, 2009), p. 180.
21M. MacMillan, Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World (London, 2001), p. 408.
22Treaty with HM King Faisal, 20 October 1922, Command Paper 1757; Protocol of 30 April 1923 and Agreements Subsidiary to the Treaty with King Faisal, Command Paper 2120. For the new ceremonials, see E. Podeh, ‘From Indifference to Obsession: The Role of National State Celebrations in Iraq, 1921–2003’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.2 (2010), 185–6.
23B. Busch, Britain, India and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley, 1971), pp. 408–10.
24H. Katouzian, ‘The Campaign against the Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 25.1 (1998), p. 10.
25H. Katouzian, ‘Nationalist Trends in Iran, 1921–6’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10.4 (1979), 539.
26Cited by H. Katouzian, Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society (London, 2003), p. 167.
27Curzon to Cambon, 11 March 1919, FO 371/3859.
28See Katouzian, ‘The Campaign against the Anglo-Iranian Agreement’, p. 17.
29Marling to Foreign Office, 28 February 1916, FO 371/2732. Also see D. Wright, ‘Prince Abd ul-Husayn Mirza Framan-Farma: Notes from British Sources’, Iran 38 (2000), 107–14.
30Loraine to Curzon, 31 January 1922, FO 371/7804.
31M. Zirinsky, ‘Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.4 (1992), 639–63.
32Caldwell to Secretary of State, 5 April 1921, in M. Gholi Majd, From Qajar to Pahlavi: Iran, 1919–1930 (Lanham, MA, 2008), pp. 96–7.
33‘Planning Committee, Office of Naval Operations to Benson’, 7 October 1918, in M. Simpson (ed.), Anglo-American Naval Relations, 1917–19 (Aldershot, 1991), pp. 542–3.
34Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 178.
35Cited by M. Rubin, ‘Stumbling through the “Open Door”: The US in Persia and the Standard–Sinclair Oil Dispute, 1920–1925’, Iranian Studies 28.3/4 (1995), 206.
36Ibid., 210.
37Ibid.
38Ibid., 209.
39Ibid., 213.
40M. Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, 8 vols (London, 1966–88), 4, p. 638.
41See M. Zirinsky, ‘Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.4 (1992), 650; H. Mejcher, Imperial Quest for Oil: Iraq 1910–1928 (London, 1976), p. 49.
42For Egypt, see A. Maghraoui, Liberalism without Democracy: Nationhood and Citizenship in Egypt, 1922–1936 (Durham, NC, 2006), pp. 54–5.
43Cited by M. Fitzherbert, The Man Who was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London, 1985), p. 219.
44S. Pedersen, ‘Getting Out of Iraq – in 1932: The League of Nations and the Road to Normative Statehood’, American Historical Review 115.4 (2010), 993–1000.
45Y. Ismael, The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Iraq (Cambridge, 2008), p. 12.
46For the Purna Swaraj declaration, M. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 90 vols (New Delhi, 1958–84), 48, p. 261.
47Cited by Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 593–4.
48‘A Record of the Discussions Held at Lausanne on 23rd, 24th and 25th August, 1928’, BP 71074.
49Cadman to Teymourtache, 3 January 1929, BP 71074.
50Young report of Lausanne discussions, BP H16/20; also see Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 601–17.
51Vansittart minute, 29 November 1932, FO 371/16078.
52Hoare to Foreign Office, 29 November 1932, FO 371/16078.
53Lord Cadman’s Private Diary, BP 96659/002.
54Cadman, Notes, Geneva and Teheran, BP 96659.
55G. Bell, Gertrude Bell: Complete Letters (London, 2014), p. 224.
Chapter 19 – The Wheat Road
1‘Hitler’s Mountain Home’, Homes & Gardens, November 1938, 193–5.
2A. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, tr. R. and C. Winston (New York, 1970), p. 161.
3Ibid. For Kannenberg’s accordion playing, C. Schroder, Er War mein Chef. Aus den Nachlaß der Sekretärin von Adolf Hitler (Munich, 1985), pp. 54, 58.
4R. Hargreaves, Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland (London, 2008), p. 66; H. Hegner, Die Reichskanzlei 1933–1945: Anfang und Ende des Dritten Reiches (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1959), pp. 334–7.
5Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 162.
6M. Muggeridge, Ciano’s Diary, 1939–1943 (London, 1947), pp. 9–10.
7House of Commons Debate, 31 March 1939, Hansard, 345, 2415.
8Ibid., 2416; see G. Roberts, The Unholy Alliance: Stalin’s Pact with Hitler (London, 1989); R. Moorhouse, The Devil’s Alliance: Hitler’s Pact with Stalin (London, 2014).
9L. Besymenski, Stalin und Hitler. Pokerspiel der Diktatoren (London, 1967), pp. 186–92.
10J. Herf, The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust (Cambridge, MA, 2006).
11W. Churchill, The Second World War, 6 vols (London, 1948–53), 1, p. 328.
12Besymenski, Stalin und Hitler, pp. 142, 206–9.
13T. Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (London, 2010), pp. 81, 93.
14Cited by E. Jäckel and A. Kahn, Hitler: Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen, 1905–1924 (Stuttgart, 1980), p. 186.
15J. Weitz, Hitler’s Diplomat: The Life and Times of Joachim von Ribbentrop (New York, 1992), p. 6.
16S. Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2004), p. 317.
17Hegner, Die Reichskanzlei, pp. 337–8, 342–3; for the treaty and its secret annexe, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 13 vols (London, 1949–64), 7, pp. 245–7.
18Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, p. 318.
19N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, tr. S. Talbott (Boston, MA, 1970), p. 128.
20Besymenski, Stalin und Hitler, pp. 21–2; D. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991), p. 352.
21L. Kovalenko and V. Maniak, 33’i: Golod: Narodna kniga-memorial (Kiev, 1991), p. 46, in Snyder, Bloodlands, p. 49; also see pp. 39–58.
22For Vyshinskii and the show trials, see A. Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor: The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky (New York, 1990), and N. Werth et al. (eds), The Little Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).
23M. Jansen and N. Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940 (Stanford, 2002), p. 69.
24V. Rogovin, Partiya Rasstrelianykh (Moscow, 1997), pp. 207–19; also Besymenski, Stalin und Hitler, p. 96; Volkogonov, Stalin, p. 368.
25‘Speech by the Fü
hrer to the Commanders in Chief’, 22 August 1939, in Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series D, 7, pp. 200–4; I. Kershaw, Hitler, 1936–45: Nemesis (London, 2001), pp. 207–8.
26‘Second speech by the Führer’, 22 August 1939, in Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, p. 205.
27‘Speech by the Führer to the Commanders in Chief’, p. 204.
28K.-J. Müller, Das Heer und Hitler: Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1969), p. 411, n. 153; Müller does not provide a supporting reference.
29W. Baumgart, ‘Zur Ansprache Hitlers vor den Führern der Wehrmacht am 22. August 1939. Eine quellenkritische Untersuchung’, Viertejahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte 16 (1968), 146; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 209.
30G. Corni, Hitler and the Peasants: Agrarian Policy of the Third Reich, 1930–39 (New York, 1990), pp. 66–115.
31See for example R.-D. Müller, ‘Die Konsequenzen der “Volksgemeinschaft”: Ernährung, Ausbeutung und Vernichtung’, in W. Michalka (ed.), Der Zweite Weltkrieg. Analysen-Grundzüge-Forschungsbilanz (Weyarn, 1989), pp. 240–9.
32A. Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder: Political and Economic Planning for German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1940–1941 (Oxford, 2006), p. 40.
33A. Bondarenko (ed.), God krizisa: 1938–1939: dokumenty i materialy v dvukh tomakh, 2 vols (Moscow, 1990), 2, pp. 157–8.
34E. Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 (Westport, CT, 1999), pp. 41ff.
35A. Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (London, 1964), p. 719.
36S. Fritz, Ostkrieg: Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East (2011), p. 39.
37C. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln, NE, 2004), p. 16; Snyder, Bloodlands, p. 126.
38War Cabinet, 8 September 1939, CAB 65/1; A. Prazmowska, Britain, Poland and the Eastern Front, 1939 (Cambridge, 1987), p. 182.
39British Legation Kabul to Foreign Office London, Katodon 106, 24 September 1939, cited by M. Hauner, ‘The Soviet Threat to Afghanistan and India, 1938–1940’, Modern Asian Studies 15.2 (1981), 297.
40Hauner, ‘Soviet Threat to Afghanistan and India’, 298.
41Report by the Chiefs of Staff Committee, ‘The Military Implications of Hostilities with Russia in 1940’, 8 March 1940, CAB 66/6.
42‘Appreciation of the Situation Created by the Russo-German Agreement’, 6 October 1939, CAB 84/8; see here M. Hauner, India in Axis Strategy: Germany, Japan and Indian Nationalists in the Second World War (Stuttgart, 1981), esp. 213–37.
43Hauner, India in Axis Strategy, 70–92.
44M. Hauner, ‘Anspruch und Wirklichkeit: Deutschland also Dritte Macht in Afghanistan, 1915–39’, in K. Kettenacker et al. (eds), Festschrift für Paul Kluge (Munich, 1981), pp. 222–44; idem, ‘Afghanistan before the Great Powers, 1938–45’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 14.4 (1982), 481–2.
45‘Policy and the War Effort in the East’, 6 January 1940, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 8, pp. 632–3.
46‘Memorandum of the Aussenpolitisches Amt’, 18 December 1939, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 8, p. 533; Hauner, India in Axis Strategy, pp. 159–72.
47M. Hauner, ‘One Man against the Empire: The Faqir of Ipi and the British in Central Asia on the Eve of and during the Second World War’, Journal of Contemporary History 16.1 (1981), 183–212.
48Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 4 n. 13.
49S. Hauser, ‘German Research on the Ancient Near East and its Relation to Political and Economic Interests from Kaiserreich to World War II’, in W. Schwanitz (ed.), Germany and the Middle East, 1871–1945 (Princeton, 2004), pp. 168–9; M. Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century: A Political History (Boulder, CO, 2009), pp. 106–8.
50Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 128.
51Cited in ibid., p. 5.
52T. Imlay, ‘A Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy during the Phony War, 1939–1940’, English Historical Review 119.481 (2004), 337–8.
53First Lord’s Personal Minute, 17 November 1939, ADM 205/2. See here Imlay, ‘Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy’, 338, 354–9.
54Imlay, ‘Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy’, 364.
55CAB 104/259, ‘Russia: Vulnerability of Oil Supplies’, JIC (39) 29 revise, 21 November 1939; Imlay, ‘Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy’, 363–8.
56For Guderian, and for Hitler’s repeated loss of nerve, see K. H. Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende. Der Westfeldung 1940 (Munich, 1990), pp. 240–3, 316–22.
57See M. Hauner, ‘Afghanistan between the Great Powers, 1938–1945’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 14.4 (1982), 487; for the proposed reduction in freight costs, Ministry of Economic Warfare, 9 January 1940, FO 371/24766.
58Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle, pp. 109–18.
59Fritz, Ostkrieg, pp. 38–41.
60J. Förster, ‘Hitler’s Decision in Favour of War against the Soviet Union’, in H. Boog, J. Förster et al. (eds), Germany and the Second World War, vol. 4: The Attack on the Soviet Union (Oxford, 1996), p. 22; also see Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 307.
61Corni, Hitler and the Peasants, pp. 126–7, 158–9, 257–60. Also see H. Backe, Die Nahrungsfreiheit Europas: Großliberalismus in der Wirtschaft (Berlin, 1938).
62V. Gnucheva, ‘Materialy dlya istorii ekspeditsii nauk v XVIII i XX vekakh’, Trudy Arkhiva Akademii Nauk SSSR 4 (Moscow, 1940), esp. 97–108.
63M. Stroganova (ed.), Zapovedniki evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR (Moscow, 1989); C. Kremenetski, ‘Human Impact on the Holocene Vegetation of the South Russian Plain’, in J. Chapman and P. Dolukhanov (eds), Landscapes in Flux: Central and Eastern Europe in Antiquity (Oxford, 1997), pp. 275–87.
64H. Backe, Die russische Getreidewirtschaft als Grundlage der Land- und Volkswirtschaft Rußlands (Berlin, 1941).
65Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, RW 19/164, fo. 126, cited by Kay, Exploitation, pp. 211, 50.
66Cited by A. Hillgruber, Hitlers Strategie: Politik und Kriegführung 1940–1941 (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1965), p. 365.
67‘Geheime Absichtserklärungen zur künftigen Ostpolitik: Auszug aus einem Aktenvermerk von Reichsleiter M. Bormann vom 16.7.1941’, in G. Uebershär and W. Wette (eds), Unternehmen Barbarossa: Der deutsche Überfall auf die Sowjetunion, 1941: Berichte, Anaylsen, Dokumente (Paderborn, 1984), pp. 330–1.
68G. Corni and H. Gies, Brot – Butter – Kanonen. Die Ernährungswirtschaft in Deutschland unter der Diktatur Hitlers (Berlin, 1997), p. 451; R.-D. Müller, ‘Das “Unternehmen Barbarossa” als wirtschaftlicher Raubkrieg’, in Uebershär and Wette, Unternehmen Barbarossa, p. 174.
69German radio broadcast, 27 February 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, 6 December 1940, Abrams Papers, 3f 65; 3f 8/41.
70Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, ed. E. Fröhlich, 15 vols (Munich, 1996), 28 June 1941, Teil I, 9, p. 409; 14 July, Teil II, 1, pp. 63–4.
71Kershaw, Nemesis, pp. 423–4.
72Private correspondence of Backe, cited by G. Gerhard, ‘Food and Genocide: Nazi Agrarian Politics in the Occupied Territories of the Soviet Union’, Contemporary European History 18.1 (2009), 56.
73‘Aktennotiz über Ergebnis der heutigen Besprechung mit den Staatssekretären über Barbarossa’, in A. Kay, ‘Germany’s Staatssekretäre, Mass Starvation and the Meeting of 2 May 1941’, Journal of Contemporary History 41.4 (2006), 685–6.
74Kay, ‘Mass Starvation and the Meeting of 2 May 1941’, 687.
75‘Wirtschaftspolitische Richtlinien für Wirtschaftsorganisation Ost, Gruppe Landwirtschaft’, 23 May 1941, in Der Prozess gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher vor dem Internationalen Militärgerichtshof, Nürnberg 14 November 1945 – 1 October 1946, 42 vols (Nuremberg, 1947–9), 36, pp. 135–7. A similar report was issued three weeks later on 16 June, Kay, Exploitation, pp. 164–7.
76Backe, Die russische Getreidewirtschaft, cited by Gerhard, ‘Food and Genocide’,
57–8; also Kay, ‘Mass Starvation’, 685–700.
77H. Backe, ‘12 Gebote für das Verhalten der Deutschen im Osten und die Behandlung der Russen’, in R. Rürup (ed.), Der Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941–1945: Eine Dokumentation (Berlin, 1991), p. 46; Gerhard, ‘Food and Genocide’, 59.
78Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, 1 May 1941, Teil I, 9, pp. 283–4.
79Ibid., 9 July 1941, Teil II, 1, pp. 33–4.
80Russian radio broadcast, 19 June 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, Abrams Papers, 3f 24/41.
81F. Halder, The Halder War Diary, ed. C. Burdick and H.-A. Jacobsen (London, 1988), 30 March 1941, pp. 345–6.
8219 May 1941, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht: Dimensionen des Vernichtungskrieges 1941–1945. Ausstellungskatalog (Hamburg 2002), pp. 53–5.
83‘Ausübund der Kriegsgerichtsbarkeit im Gebiet “Barbarossa” und besondere Maßnahmen Truppe’, 14 May 1941, in H. Bucheim, M. Broszat, J.-A. Jacobsen and H. Krasunick, Anatomie des SS-Staates, 2 vols (Olten, 1965), 2, pp. 215–18.
84‘Richtlinien für die Behandlung politischer Kommissare’, 6 June 1941, in Bucheim et al., Anatomie des SS-Staates, pp. 225–7.
Chapter 20 – The Road to Genocide
1C. Streit, Keine Kameraden. Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen 1941–1945 (Stuttgart, 1978), pp. 143, 153.
2Cited by Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 359.
3Ibid., p. 360.
4Ibid., pp. 400, 435.
5W. Lower, Nazi Empire Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), pp. 171–7.
6A. Hitler, Monologe im Führer-Hauptquartier 1941–1944, ed. W. Jochmann (Hamburg, 1980), 17–18 September 1941, pp. 62–3; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 401.
7Cited by Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 434.
8Hitler, Monologe, 13 October 1941, p. 78; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 434.
9Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle, pp. 125ff.
10V. Anfilov, ‘. . . Razgovor zakonchilsia ugrozoi Stalina’, Voenno-istoricheskiy Zhurnal 3 (1995), 41; L. Bezymenskii, ‘O “plane” Zhukova ot 15 maia 1941 g.’, Novaya Noveishaya Istoriya 3 (2000), 61. See here E. Mawdsley, ‘Crossing the Rubicon: Soviet Plans for Offensive War in 1940–1941’, International History Review 25 (2003), 853.
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