by Tim Wu
3. In fact, McDonald disliked commercials even during the radio era. He believed that radio commercials had too many “roars, grunts, squawks, yaps, burps, and a mixture of adenoidal and…honey-chile voices.” “McDonald v. the Adenoidal,” 66. For this reason, starting in 1940 McDonald and Zenith spent $75,000 a year, approximately $900,000 in today’s terms, to support WWZR, a radio station that only broadcast music, without any commercials.
4. Caetlin Benson-Allott, Remote Control (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), 49. For an image of the cited advertisement in full, as well as various images of the device in use, see “Remembering Eugene Polley and his Flash-Matic Remote (photos),” CNet.com, accessed February 5, 2016, http://www.cnet.com/pictures/remembering-eugene-polley-and-his-flash-matic-remote-photos/.
5. Margalit Fox, “Eugene Polley, Conjuror of a Device That Changed TV Habits, Dies at 96,” New York Times, May 22, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/23/business/eugene-t-polley-inventor-of-the-wireless-tv-remote-dies-at-96.html.
6. As quoted in the New York Herald Tribune, October 12, 1956, and reproduced in Robert Andrews, The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 900.
7. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes, trans. Konrad Kellen and Jean Leaner (New York: Vintage, 1973), 103.
8. Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957).
9. “The Hidden Persuaders,” The New Yorker, May 18, 1957, 167.
10. Ellul, Propaganda.
11. Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, 266.
12. For more on Dotto, see David Baber, Television Game Show Hosts: Biographies of 32 Stars (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008).
13. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Investigation of Television Quiz Shows: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee of Interstate and Foreign Commerce, United States House of Representatives, 86th Congress (1960), 624.
14. Walter Lippmann, The Essential Lippmann: A Political Philosophy for Liberal Democracy, eds. Clinton Rossiter and James Lare (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 411–12.
15. Larry Ingram, “Network TV Faces Day of Reckoning,” Sunday Denver Post, November 20, 1960, AA1.
16. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Report Pursuant to Section 136 of the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946, United States House of Representatives, 88th Congress (1963), 372.
CHAPTER 12: THE GREAT REFUSAL
1. Martin Lee and Bruce Shlain, Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond (New York: Grove, 2007).
2. Timothy Leary, Flashbacks: A Personal and Cultural History of an Era: An Autobiography (New York: Putnam, 1990), 252.
3. Martin Torgoff, Can’t Find My Way Home: America in the Great Stoned Age, 1945–2000 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 209.
4. Russell Jacoby, The End of Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 152.
5. Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (London: Routledge Classics, 1964), 6; Herbert Marcuse, An Essay on Liberation (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), ix.
6. Timothy Leary, High Priest (Oakland, CA: Ronin Publishing, 1995), 320; Timothy Leary, Leary to Canada: Wake Up!, Recorded Speech (1967, Millbrook, New York).
7. Timothy Leary, Start Your Own Religion (Berkeley, CA: Ronin Publishing, 2009), 128.
8. Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 24.
9. As described in Stephanie Capparell, The Real Pepsi Challenge: How One Pioneering Company Broke Color Barriers in the 1940s (New York: Free Press, 2008).
10. Peter D. Bennett, Robert P. Lamm, and Robert A. Fry, Marketing, Volume 1 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988), 178.
11. Tristan Donovan, Fizz: How Soda Shook Up the World (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2013), 182.
12. Frank V. Cespedes, Managing Marketing Linkages: Text, Cases, and Readings (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), 140.
13. Timothy D. Taylor, The Sounds of Capitalism: Advertising, Music, and the Conquest of Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 155.
14. Frank, Conquest of Cool, 122.
15. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 9.
16. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man, 10.
17. To read more on why Jerry Mander thought television should be eliminated, see Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television (New York: HarperCollins, 1978). For a detailed discussion on both the positive and negative effects of television and its success, see Elihu Katz and Paddy Scannell, eds., The End of Television? Its Impact on the World (So Far), Vol. 625 of The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science, ed. Phyllis Kaniss (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2009).
18. To listen to or read Murrow’s entire speech, see Edward Murrow, “Wires and Lights in a Box,” RTDNA convention, Philadelphia, October 15, 1958, http://www.rtdna.org/content/edward_r_murrow_s_1958_wires_lights_in_a_box_speech. For more on the development and history of noncommercial television, see Ralph Engelman, Public Radio and Television in America: A Political History (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 1996). The details about Fred Rogers and his various television shows were drawn from Tim Hollis, Hi There, Boys and Girls!: America’s Local Children’s TV Programs (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001); Mark Collins and Margaret M. Kimmel, eds., Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood: Children, Television, and Fred Rogers (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997); and M. Carole Macklin and Les Carlson, eds., Advertising to Children: Concepts and Controversies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 1999). The details about Sesame Street were drawn from Malcolm Gladwell, The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference (Boston: Little, Brown, 2006); and Michael Davis, Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street (New York: Penguin, 2008).
19. Eileen R. Meehan, Why TV Is Not Our Fault: Television Programming, Viewers, and Who’s Really in Control (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); Michele Hilmes, The Television History Book (London: British Film Institute, 2003). Laurie Oullette, Viewers Like You: How Public TV Failed the People (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 196.
20. Interview with author, May 12, 2008. For more about Bill Siemering’s vision for NPR and about the implementation of that mission, see William H. Siemering, “National Public Radio Purposes, 1970,” Current, May 17, 2012, http://current.org/2012/05/national-public-radio-purposes/.
21. Larry Brody, Turning Points in Television (New York: Kensington Publishing, 2005). The fact is that 15 million homes tuned in to watch A Charlie Brown Christmas and that Peanuts-generated high merchandise sales made “Charlie Brown’s complaint about Christmas commercialism seem somewhat paradoxical.” Joey Green, Weird and Wonderful Christmas: Curious and Crazy Customs and Coincidences from Around the World (New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2005).
22. Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television, 31.
23. Laurie Ouellette, Viewers Like You: How Public TV Failed the People (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012); Janet Staiger, Blockbuster TV: Must-See Sitcoms in the Network Era (New York: NYU Press, 2000); Robert W. Morrow, Sesame Street and the Reform of Children’s Television (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011); Thomas Thompson, “In the Life-or-Death Ratings Game,” Life, September 10, 1971; Kevin M. Kelleghan, “Image Battle Shapes in Mexico as Firms Gear for ‘Tomorrow,’ ” Billboard, July 22, 1967.
24. Thomas C. O’Guinn et al., Advertising and Integrated Brand Promotion (Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2014); Edward J. Rielly, The 1960s (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2003); Frank, The Conquest of Cool, 124–25. For an interesting summary of the ad revolution, see “History: 1960s,” Advertising Age, last modified September 15, 2003, http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/history-1960s/98702/; “History: 1970s,” Advertising Age, last modified
September 15, 2003, http://adage.com/article/adage-encyclopedia/history-1970s/98703/.
25. Fox, The Mirror Makers, 270–71.
26. For the full cosmetics ad, see “This Is the Way Love Is in 1969,” Life, March 7, 1969. To view a Benson & Hedges ad, see “Benson & Hedges 100’s Pick-Your-Favorite-Disadvantage Sweepstakes,” Life, April 3, 1970. Stephen R. Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1984).
27. Frank, The Conquest of Cool. To watch the full Virginia Slims commercial, see “Virginia Slims Commercials,” September 1969, https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/docs/#id=yhyd0111.
28. These statistics were drawn from “TV Basics: A Report on the Growth and Scope of Television,” TVB Local Media Marketing Solutions, last modified June 2012, http://www.tvb.org/media/file/TV_Basics.pdf [website is no longer active].
29. Taylor, The Sounds of Capitalism, 157.
CHAPTER 13: CODA TO AN ATTENTIONAL REVOLUTION
1. Wallace Stegner, Angle of Repose (New York: Doubleday, 1971), 18.
2. David Burnham, The Rise of the Computer State: The Threat to Our Freedoms, Our Ethics, and Our Democratic Process (New York: Random House, 1983), 90.
3. Michael J. Weiss and Kelly Nelson, “ZIP: How Marketers See Portland…and Why They Look,” Casco Bay Weekly, March 2, 1989, 10.
4. Throughout the 1960s, Robbin developed programs for the Office of Economic Development. One such program includes “The Index of Susceptibility of Civil Disorder,” which predicted cities that would likely experience riots. Ultimately, the model achieved 87 percent accuracy.
5. The concept of this socio-spatial segmentation first appeared in Charles Booth’s Descriptive Map of London Poverty, in which Booth developed a descriptive map that categorized neighborhoods and provided insight into patterns of poverty in London. Booth’s study ultimately influenced sociologists Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess, who developed a theory of urban ecology. Park and Burgess proposed that competition for land in urban environments cause social groups to naturally divide themselves into geographic “niches.” For more on the historical background of geodemographic segmentation, see Austin Troy, “Geodemographic Segmentation,” in Encyclopedia of GIS, eds. Shashi Shekar and Hui Xiong (New York: Springer, 2008), 347–55
6. Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism, ed. Amy Gutmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
7. Troy, “Geodemographic Segmentation,” 347.
8. While Robbin was interested in using his program to help companies tailor their products and their marketing to the forty lifestyle clusters, Michael Weiss, who elaborated on sociological characteristics of the clusters in The Clustering of America, hoped to explore the cultural implications and form “a composite understanding of American lifestyles” and “explore the diversity of the way Americans really live.” For additional information about the PRIZM cluster system and the detailed description of the cluster lifestyles, see Michael J. Weiss, The Clustering of America (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); Michael J. Weiss, The Clustered World: How We Live, What We Buy, and What It All Means About Who We Are (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000).
9. Weiss, The Clustering of America, 290.
10. Weiss, The Clustering of America, 300.
11. For additional information on the history and development of Diet Coke, see Jay Moye, “ ‘We Needed a Big Idea’: The Extraordinary Story of How Diet Coke Came to Be,” Coca-Cola, last modified February 4, 2013, http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/we-needed-a-big-idea-the-extraordinary-story-of-how-diet-coke-came-to-be/.
12. Kenneth N. Gilpin, “Prospects,” New York Times, July 26, 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/07/26/business/prospects.html.
13. Red Smith, “Cable TV for Sports Junkies,” New York Times, December 3, 1979.
14. With “dualcasting,” Bravo used gay content in order to cater to both women and gays as two distinct audiences. The show that sparked this trend was Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, in which five gay men would make over a heterosexual male in order to transform him into a “better straight man.” See Katherine Sender, “Dualcasting: Bravo’s Gay Programming and the Quest for Women Audiences,” in Cable Visions: Television Beyond Broadcasting, eds. Sarah Banet-Weiser, Cynthia Chris, and Anthony Freitas (New York: NYU Press, 2007).
15. Sandra Salmans, “Playboy’s Hopes in Cable TV,” New York Times, March 15, 1983, http://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/15/business/playboy-s-hopes-in-cable-tv.html.
16. Murdoch held conservative political opinions, leading to speculation that the news broadcast would offer a “conservative alternative to what he views as liberal bias among traditional news.” However, Murdoch, at the time, claimed that he would not champion a conservative agenda because he believed “it’s more important to be fair.” See Lawrie Mifflin, “At the New Fox News Channel, the Buzzword Is Fairness, Separating News from Bias,” New York Times, October 7, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/07/business/at-the-new-fox-news-channel-the-buzzword-is-fairness-separating-news-from-bias.html.
17. Fred W. Friendly, “Asleep at the Switch of the Wired City,” The Saturday Review, October 10, 1970, 3.
18. See Peter Ainslie, “Confronting a Nation of Grazers,” Channels, September 1988, 54–62; and Jib Fowles, Why Viewers Watch: A Reappraisal of Television’s Effects (Newbury Park, CA: SAGE Publications, 1992), 37.
19. Bernice Kanner, “The Newest Ploy: Bait-and-Wait,” New York, June 17, 1985, 41.
20. Rena Bartos, “Ads That Irritate May Erode Trust in Advertised Brands,” Harvard Business Review 59 (1981), 137.
21. Kanner, “The Newest Ploy,” 41.
22. Those responsible for the Coca-Cola advertisement believed that juxtaposing an intimidating man to a young, vulnerable boy would naturally build tension and warm hearts when the Coke would be handed over. In fact, Greene recalls how the advertisement drastically changed his image: “I was suddenly approachable…kids were no longer afraid of me, and older people…would come up and offer me a Coke.” Jay Moye, “Commercial Appeal: ‘Mean’ Joe Greene Reflections on Iconic Coca-Cola Ad That Changed His Life,” Coca-Cola, last modified January 16, 2014, http://www.coca-colacompany.com/stories/commercial-appeal-mean-joe-greene-reflects-on-iconic-coca-cola-ad-that-changed-his-life/.
23. David Burnham, “The Computer, The Consumer and Privacy,” New York Times, March 4, 1984, http://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/04/weekinreview/the-computer-the-consumer-and-privacy.html.
CHAPTER 14: EMAIL AND THE POWER OF THE CHECK-IN
1. Ray Tomlinson, “The First Network Email,” http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html.
2. “The Man Who Made You Put Away Your Pen,” All Things Considered, NPR, November 15, 2009, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=120364591.
3. William F. Allman, “The Accidental History of the @ Symbol,” Smithsonian Magazine, September 2012, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-accidental-history-of-the-symbol-18054936/?no-ist.
4. Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998).
5. David G. Myers, Exploring Psychology, 8th ed. (New York: Worth Publishers, 2009), 253.
6. Tom Stafford, “Why Email Is Addictive (and What to Do About It),” Mindhacks, September 19, 2006, http://mindhacks.com/2006/09/19/why-email-is-addictive-and-what-to-do-about-it/.
7. Kate Stoodley, “Father of Spam Speaks Out on His Legacy,” Datamation, November 19, 2004, http://www.datamation.com/article.php/3438651.
8. Jonathan A. Zdziarski, Ending Spam: Bayesian Content Filtering and the Art of Statistical Language Classification (San Francisco: No Starch Press, 2005), 5
9. Finn Brunton, Spam: A Shadow History of the Internet (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013), 33.
10. Gina Smith, “Unsung Innovators: Gar
y Thuerk, the Father of Spam,” Computerworld, December 3, 2007, http://www.computerworld.com/article/2539767/cybercrime-hacking/unsung-innovators—gary-thuerk—the-father-of-spam.html.
11. Gary Thuerk, “Anniversary,” LinkedIn (blog), May 2014, https://www.linkedin.com/in/fatherespam.
CHAPTER 15: INVADERS
1. Ralph H. Baer, Videogames: In the Beginning (Springfield: Rolenta Press, 2005). For more of Baer’s own words on his inspirations and influences, see his interview in Benj Edwards, The Right to Baer Games—An Interview with Ralph Baer, the Father of Video Games, http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1690/the_right_to_baer_games__an_.php?print=1.
2. Just a few months after Baer invented the Magnavox Odyssey, Bushnell founded Atari with Ted Dabney “with an initial investment of $250 each.” Steven L. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon and Beyond…the Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2001). Matt Fox, The Video Games Guide: 1,000+ Arcade, Console and Computer Games, 1962–2012 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013).
3. Mike Snider, Interview: ‘Space Invaders’ Creator Tomohiro Nishikado, May 6, 2009, http://content.usatoday.com/communities/gamehunters/post/2009/05/66479041/1#.Vr0FTjYrLVo; Henry Allen, “Galaxy of Wars,” Washington Post, September 2, 1980, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1980/09/02/galaxy-of-wars/ea315a08-a9af-41c9-9666-230d2acbc7e2/.
4. Martin Amis, Invasion of the Space Invaders (London: Hutchinson, 1982), 14; Glenn Collins, “Children’s Video Games: Who Wins (or Loses)?,” New York Times, August 31, 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/31/style/children-s-video-games-who-wins-or-loses.html.
5. Kent, The Ultimate History of Video Games; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, “The Pursuit of Happiness: Bringing the Science of Happiness to Life,” accessed February 8, 2016, http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-happiness/mihaly-csikszentmihalyi/.; Amis, Invasion of the Space Invaders, 20; Mark O’Connell, “The Arcades Project: Martin Amis’ Guide to Classic Video Games,” The Millions, February 16, 2012, http://www.themillions.com/2012/02/the-arcades-project-martin-amis-guide-to-classic-video-games.html.