by S. J. Hodge
The word fair comes from the Latin word ‘feria’ which translated as holy day. So the ‘fair’ was originally a day when people gathered for worship. Soon, the Church recognized the moneymaking opportunities and began actively to sponsor fairs on feast days. Here a bishop is blessing the annual market that was held for two weeks in June outside Saint Denis in Paris. Commerce and religion had become closely entwined.
Although the idea was not accepted by the Catholic Church, living alongside each other under the protection of the leading families in the region were Roman Catholics, members of small Christian sects and nonconformists. These included Arians, Waldensians and Cathars.
Arianism evolved from closer consideration of the Holy Trinity: God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. Arians were concerned that, since Jesus, the Son of God, was created by God the Father, he had not always existed, which made him subordinate to God the Father – whereas orthodox Christians believe that the three divine persons of the Holy Trinity are equal. The Waldensians were another small Christian sect, also called Vaudoise. Following a merchant from Lyons, France, named Peter Waldo, the Waldensians began their movement in Lyons in the late 1170s and gradually migrated to the Languedoc region. The Waldensian movement proposed a return to the vows of poverty and the preaching of the Gospel, as Jesus and his apostles had advocated. Originally a reform movement within the Catholic Church, the Waldensian sect was declared heretical by 1215, after it disputed the sole authority of ordained priests to preach and interpret the Gospels. Catharism was another Christian religious movement that flourished from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Cathars’ beliefs are thought to have evolved originally from Eastern Europe and the Byzantine Empire, although they are believed to have emerged first of all as a sect in Bosnia before settling predominantly in southern France and Spain. Catharism soon became a large and well-organized concern and, once again, most settled in the Languedoc region, where the rulers were tolerant of them and their beliefs. Although they believed in many of the same things as Christians, Cathars had their own clergy and they did not accept that one God was the creator of all. They reasoned that if he was, he would not allow so much suffering, illness and death in the world.
Two gods and two worlds
Cathars believed that there were actually two gods and two worlds parallel to each other. They believed that Jesus Christ was not really part of this world as he had never been an actual human and that his life and resurrection from death were all simulated somehow. They believed that the angry and judgemental God of the Old Testament was the ‘bad’ God and that Jesus had been sent by the ‘good’ God as his messenger. They also believed that the only way to salvation was to follow Christ’s teachings. Like the Waldensians, they also disputed the authority of priests, but they believed that no human could perform God’s work. Cathars openly voiced their criticisms of the corruption they saw in the Catholic Church. Similar to the Cathars were the Gnostics who also had a fairly large presence in the Languedoc region. Like the Cathars, Gnostics believed in dualism and declared that they knew the secret of salvation. This contradicted Christian teaching, and was viewed as heretical by the Church, but the Templars owed much of their expansion to the wealthy and noble families of the Languedoc region, and several of their greatest supporters came from these religious sects, so although they were part of the Church, they were not averse to recruiting members of their Order from within these small groups, as well as the usual orthodox Christians. As they worked and built up their Brotherhood with all its many varied pursuits, the notion of recruiting widely seemed logical to them, if not to other Christians who heard rumours of these recruitments. The men they recruited from the sects were often intelligent, well-positioned and able to assist in the efficient running of various Templar interests. Some were able to take on important responsibilities in their farming, manufacture, business or shipping ventures. Some helped with the care of horses or armaments, or in the banking sector. Some became courageous soldiers, while others were put to use as squires. Whoever the Templars recruited, once they were in the Order, it seems that their qualities were made the best of. All adhered to the Rule and through outstanding levels of organization the entire, vast scope of the Brotherhood functioned like a well-oiled machine.
Further legends tell of the Templars recruiting from groups of people living in the Holy Land, including some from the religious group known as the Essenes, who lived communal, austere existences abstaining from worldly pleasures – perfect for the monastic existence. Inevitably perhaps, the Templars are also believed to have recruited some Assassins from the East, but none of these unusual recruitments are verified. If they did recruit from their Muslim neighbours, they seem to have chosen judiciously, as the Order was more successful than any other during the main years of its existence, in terms of efficiency and accomplishment. But of course, at a time when religion was such an important aspect of life, it must have seemed exceedingly suspect that men of the Church were closely fraternizing with heretics. Accusations that the Templars were secretly Cathars, or even Muslims, were generated, but most of these ideas were quashed, largely because of the effectiveness of the Order. While the Templars were doing such a good job in Outremer and beyond, few wanted to question them. Additionally, glowing reports came from non-permanent members and, ultimately, all Templars had to answer to the Grand Masters, who were nearly all highly devout and honest men.
Peyrepertuse, meaning ‘pierced rock’ is a ruined Cathar castle in the Languedoc region of France. Built in the 11th century, the main part of the castle overlooks the sea and resembles the prow of a ship. It was surrendered by the Cathars in May 1217.
Grand Masters
Although the entire enterprise of the Knights Templar was kept running smoothly by an organized network of efficient men across the various headquarters, in absolute charge, answerable only to the Pope and making the ultimate decisions, were the Grand Masters. Grand Masters were elected by the Templars themselves and assumed a similar role to abbots in other religious orders. Both abbots and Grand Masters were perceived as representatives of Christ within their confraternities, and in the same way as an abbot, the Grand Master was expected to observe humility and compassion, following Christ’s example. Nevertheless, Grand Masters did not work completely alone. As with every other aspect of the Order, the roles within were organized for efficiency. Grand Masters had a hierarchy of men beneath them to call upon. Although there was only ever one Grand Master, living in the main headquarters (Jerusalem until 1191, Acre until 1291, and after that on the island of Cyprus), next in line were the Masters, who lived in the Templar headquarters or chapters in other countries. Each Master was in charge of his chapter, but he still reported ultimately to the Grand Master at the main Templar headquarters, and the Grand Master could delegate work and decisions to any of his Masters. Succeeding the Masters were the Grand Commanders or Seneschals, who as with all Templars, were ultimately accountable to the Grand Master, but they also had to obey the Master. Grand Commanders lived in chapter houses and worked for the Masters. They administered all the lands belonging to their chapter and, in war, managed the army’s movements and provisions.
By the time the Templars had risen in prominence in the eyes of all Christendom, most Grand Masters were treated as the equivalent of royalty. Overseeing and endorsing the Templar Rule, overseeing and managing all Templar activities, including military operations, industrial and agricultural enterprises and all else, to be a Grand Master was a vast undertaking. Most Grand Masters held their position for life, but a few abdicated, usually to join other monastic orders. For instance, the third Grand Master, Everard des Barres (1113–74), left the Templars in 1151 and joined the Cistercians at Clairvaux. In view of their elevated status, despite being a ‘Poor Knight of Christ’, Grand Masters were also entitled to a large entourage that could consist of four horses, one chaplain, one clerk with three horses, one sergeant with two horses, one gentleman valet with one horse, one farrier, o
ne Saracen scribe, one turcopole, one cook, two foot soldiers and two knights as companions.
At the beginning of the Order when they were living on the beneficence of the king and Patriarch of Jerusalem, Hugh de Payns did not have any of these privileges. After he died in 1136, the Templars in Jerusalem gathered to elect a new Grand Master. Robert de Craon, the preferred candidate of Fulk d’Anjou, was chosen. Craon was acknowledged as an intelligent man and an exceptionally astute administrator, which was what was needed from the leader of such a growing concern. Within a short time, Craon proved himself by obtaining the extra privileges from Pope Innocent II in Omne Datum Optimum, the papal bull of 1139. From the start of the Order until its end, there were 23 Grand Masters. Some of their histories are not known, while others are more accessible. Odo de St Amand, for instance, was the eighth Grand Master, at the end of the 12th century, who came from Limousin in France. As a headstrong leader, he was both praised and resented. Fiercely loyal to his men, he took part in several military expeditions and achieved many victories. At the Battle of Montgisard, his knights routed the stronger Muslim force.
Grand Masters often travelled to Europe, visiting regional preceptories and European rulers in efforts to generate larger donations and assistance for the Order. The Grand Master was assisted by an elected council from members of the Order. A brother, known as the Visitor, regularly toured all regional preceptories to make sure that standards were being maintained and to take any requests or complaints back to the Grand Master and the council.
The House of Toulouse
One of the most powerful, influential and tolerant dynasties of the medieval period was the family of St-Gilles who became known as the Counts of Toulouse, Dukes of Narbonne and Marquises of Provence. Through marriage, they were related to other leading families of Europe and they owned a vast area of land in the Languedoc region. In medieval times, St-Gilles was a major commercial centre and the fourth most important pilgrimage site in Europe. An important member of the family was Raymond of Toulouse, a highly revered leader of the First Crusade, who founded a new dynasty as Count of Tripoli in the Holy Land. Unlike the leaders of the Catholic Church, the Counts of Toulouse were all religiously tolerant, refusing to discriminate against Jews, Cathars or other religious dissenters living in their region. Under their control, women enjoyed more freedom than in most parts of the world at the time, and learning and literacy flourished. Languedoc was in a thriving position geographically. Merchants crossed it regularly and new cities sprang up around the new roads. Yet, although they gained the respect of the people, the Counts of Toulouse attracted the condemnation of the Roman Catholic Church for their religious tolerance, which eventually resulted in a religious war, the fall of the House of Toulouse and the extinction of their line.
SACRED DEFENCE
A black Madonna and Child, from the Church of Saint Pierre, the Pyrenees town of Prades. These Madonnas were especially venerated and were often the object of pilgrimage from the 11th to 15th centuries. Yet little is known of their origins or the relevance of their colour.
Templar property in western Europe was divided into provinces and organized by groups of officials, which changed over the course of the Order’s history. Their northern European provinces were added to by 1143, with a province covering ‘Provence and parts of Spain’, and by 1220, they had their first province in Germany.
Once the Templars had established chapters and preceptories all over Europe as well as in Outremer, they continued in their main objective of protecting pilgrims. No longer limited to the Holy Land, they soon patrolled nearly all the major international shrines. Although Jerusalem was the most notorious, other routes and sites were also extremely vulnerable and accessible to assailants. These included established routes such as the Via Francigena, which passed from Canterbury in England to France, then through Switzerland and Italy to Rome, or the Camino de Santiago (‘Way of St James’), which was one of the most important pilgrimage routes of the time to Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain. The Templars also guarded many actual shrines including those at the Cathedral of St James of Compostela, Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, Mont St Michel and Rocamadour in France, as well as several other sites where black madonnas were worshipped. Templar protection was so thorough that for the first time in years, pilgrims, merchants and other travellers felt comparatively safe along the major routes of Europe, and travelling and trade increased vastly as a result. The Templars were succeeding in the role they had been given beyond all original expectation.
Black madonnas
In medieval Europe, the worship of material objects, from relics to artwork, was an important aspect of the Christian faith. Any objects relating to saints were envisaged as having supernatural powers and almost anything relating to Christ or the Virgin was believed to have particularly miraculous attributes. The Templar Order was officially dedicated to three things: the protection of pilgrims, the Virgin Mary and all of Christendom. The Virgin Mary was their patroness and protector, and novices were told that ‘we were established in honour of Our Lady’. So images of the Madonna were particularly significant for them. From approximately the 11th to the 15th centuries, largely because of reports of miracles emanating from them, the black madonna became a phenomenon of general Catholic devotion.
In many shrines and churches, particularly in areas with Templar, Cistercian or Cathar connections, numerous images of the Virgin Mary had dark rather than white skin. These statues and paintings were not created to appear ethnically black, as they often are in African countries. They were either created intentionally to appear European but with dark skin or they were simply conventional portrayals of the Virgin that had darkened over time for various reasons. Many darkenings were caused by a reaction of the pigment with the air. Some darkened from constant candle soot and incense smoke, and others appear dark simply because they are painted on dark wood, such as ebony, which showed through the paint. Generally found in Roman Catholic rather than Eastern Orthodox environments, the paintings nonetheless resemble Byzantine icons in their stylization, while the painted wood or stone statues are usually standing or sitting on a throne, which also reflects the Byzantine style. It is estimated that there are about 500 black madonnas in existence, mainly in churches or shrines in France, Spain, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, with a few beyond Europe.
As devout Christians it was quite acceptable for the Templars to revere black madonnas as well as the paler versions, but after their downfall, they were accused of ‘wrongly’ venerating these images. With no surviving texts to explain whether these blackened madonnas were made deliberately or by accident, analysis of their purpose remains ambiguous. This was a time of ignorance and superstition. If some of the icons were darkened deliberately, there are at least two theories that have been put forth by scholars about their purpose. One is that they were made to illustrate a text from Solomon’s biblical ‘Song of Songs’: ‘I am black but beautiful’ (negra sum sed formosa). Bernard of Clairvaux wrote many essays on this aspect of the Bible and he was also known to visit several shrines to black madonnas. There is a black madonna in Chartres Cathedral and in the medieval period it was one of the most revered of all the black madonnas in France. In 1150, Bernard of Clairvaux was asked to lead a new Crusade from Chartres Cathedral and, although this never happened, he remained vaguely associated with Chartres. Many claim that the Templars helped to construct the cathedral, and some have speculated that the genre of the black madonna developed from the Templars’ links with the Cathars. Another theory is that black madonnas developed from images of ancient earth-goddesses, many of whom were portrayed as black, such as Artemis, the ancient Greek goddess of the hunt; Ceres, the Roman goddess of agricultural fertility; or Isis, the ancient Egyptian goddess who represented the ideal mother and wife as well as being the patron of nature and magic, whose son Horus was born on 25 December.
Despite the horror expressed in the 14th century about the notion of worshipping images of pagan god
s, however, this was not unheard-of. When Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, to help his people understand the new faith they were to follow, much of the art and customs of his empire were simply transferred. This was not seen as sacrilegious; images and customs were always simply a way of helping the faithful to focus; the images were never intended to be substitutes for the real thing. So, for instance, early images of Jesus were almost identical to those that had been created of Apollo, the most important Roman god, who was created as a continuation of the image of the Greek god Zeus. In this way, ordinary people could understand that this was an important figure to whom they should pray. Images of the Virgin Mary and her child were also based on previously recognized pagan gods, simply to help the illiterate to continue worshipping in their national religion with as little confusion or disruption as possible. Many early Christian works of art are deliberate amalgamations of pagan and Christian symbolism for this reason.
An ancient Egyptian statuette of Isis and her son Horus, 330–30 BCE. In common with black madonnas, Isis was perceived as the ideal mother and wife.