99. Jacek Trznadel, Hańba Domowa (Paris, 1986), pp. 22–23.
100. Interview with Hans Modrow, Berlin, December 7, 2006.
101. Interview with Józef Tejchma, Warsaw, June 14, 2007.
102. Quote in Hans Modrow, Ich wollte ein neues Deutschland (Munich, 1999), p. 59.
14. SOCIALIST REALISM
1. V. I. Lenin, “Party Organization and Party Literature,” Novaya Zhizn 12 (November 13, 1905).
2. Andrzej Panufnik, Composing Myself (London, 1987), p. 189.
3. It is now the German Finance Ministry.
4. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, In a Cold Crater: Cultural and Intellectual Life in Berlin, 1945–1948 (Berkeley, 1998), pp. 39–50.
5. Elfriede Brüning, Und außerdem war es mein Leben (Berlin, 2004), p. 331.
6. SAPMO-BA, DY 271/213.
7. David Pike, The Politics of Culture in Soviet-Occupied Germany, 1945–1949 (Stanford, 1992), p. 138.
8. SAPMO-BA, DY 27/2751.
9. Ibid., DY 27/341; also Schivelbusch, In a Cold Crater, p. 80.
10. Quoted in an exhibition of the work of Herbert Sandberg, “Mit spitzer Feder,” Berlin, Akademie der Künste, May 2008.
11. Schivelbusch, In a Cold Crater, p. 82.
12. SAPMO-BA, DY 27/1512.
13. Ronald Hayman, Brecht: A Biography (New York, 1983), pp. 325–26.
14. Anne Hartmann and Wolfram Eggelin, Sowjetische Präsenz im kulturellen Leben der SBZ und frühen DDR 1945–1953 (Berlin, 1998), pp. 155–56.
15. György Faludy, My Happy Days in Hell, trans. Kathleen Szasz (London, 2010), p. 228.
16. AdK ABK, Max Lingner, 1888–1959, exhibition catalogue published in Berlin, 1988.
17. Günter Feist, Eckhart Gillen, and Beatrice Vierneisel, eds., Kunstdokumentation: 1945–1990, SBZ/DDR (Berlin, 1996), pp. 104–6.
18. T. V. Volokitina et al., eds., Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiskikh arkhivov 1944–1953, vol. 2 (Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997), pp. 36–41.
19. Ibid., pp. 41–43.
20. Peter Pachnicke pointed out to me that the “formalism” debate of the 1940s was a repeat of the “expressionist” debate that took place in the 1930s. Conversation with Peter Pachnicke, Berlin, April 20, 2008.
21. Laurie S. Koloski, “Painting Kraków Red: Politics and Culture in Poland, 1945–1950,” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1998.
22. See Wojciech Włodarcyzk, Socrealizm: sztuka polska w latach 1950–1954 (Warsaw, 1986), p. 112.
23. Conversation with Petra Uhlmann and Michael Krejsa, Akademie der Künste, Berlin, December 5, 2008.
24. Joy Calico, “The Trial, the Condemnation, the Cover-up: Behind the Scenes of Brecht/Dessau’s Lucullus Opera(s),” Cambridge Opera Journal 14, 3 (November 2002), pp. 313–42. See also Hayman, Brecht, pp. 354–55.
25. Gunter Feist, “Das Wandbild im Bahnhof Friedrichstrasse,” in Eckhart Gillen and Diether Schmidt, eds., Zone 5: Kunst in der Viersektorenstadt, 1945–51, exhibition catalogue (Berlin, 1989), pp. 92–124.
26. Conversation with Uhlmann and Krejsa.
27. Protokoły z posiedzeń Rady Wydziału Malarstwa w ASP w Warszawie, 01.12.1950–17.02.1954, in the collection of Andrzej Bielawski.
28. AAN, Ministerstwo Kultury, nos. 321, 322, 326.
29. Koloski, “Painting Kraków Red,” pp. 200–309.
30. AdK ABK, Otto Nagel collection, III, and Arnold Zweig collection, V, folder 5.
31. Ibid., Max Lingner, IV.A.59.
32. Gerhard Strauss, Vom Auftrag zum Wandbild (Berlin, 1953), p. 12.
33. Ibid., pp. 16–20.
34. Ibid., pp. 21–25.
35. AdK ABK, Max Lingner, VI.A.124.
36. Günter Feist, with Eckhart Gillen, Stationen eines Weges: Daten und Zitate zur Kunst und Kunstpolitik der DDR 1945–1998 (Berlin, 1988), p. 24.
37. AdK ABK, Max Lingner, exhibition catalogue.
38. Wanda Telakowska, Twórczość Ludowa w Nowym Wzornictwie (Warsaw, 1954), p. 5.
39. David Crowley, “Building the World Anew: Design in Stalinist and Post-Stalinist Poland,” Journal of Design History 7, 3 (1994).
40. Lou Taylor, “The Search for a Polish National Identity, 1945–68,” unpublished manuscript in the collection of the Polish National Museum.
41. AAN, Ministerstwo Kultury, no. 321.
42. Krystyna Czerniewska and Tadeusz Reindl, eds., “Sztuka dla Zycia: Wspomnienia o Wandzie Telakowskiej,” Biblioteka Wzornictwa 10, 88, pp. 11–12.
43. Conversations with Anna Fr˛ackiewicz, curator of decorative arts, Polish National Museum, November 2007; Krystyna Czerniewska, “To Oni Tworzyly Wzornictowo,” unpublished manuscript in the collection of the Polish National Museum.
44. These designs form the basis of the Polish National Museum’s enormous modern design collection, much of which is in semipermanent storage.
45. Aleksander Wojciechowski, O Sztuce Użytkowej i Użytecznej (Warsaw, 1955), p. 65.
46. Quoted in Piotr Majewski, “Jak zbudować ‘Zamek socjalistyczny,’ ” Zbudować Warsaw˛e Piekn˛e: O Nowy Krajobraz Stolicy 1944–1956 (Warsaw, 2003), p. 33.
47. Interview with Alexander Jackowski, Warsaw, May 15, 2007.
48. Bolesław Szmidt, ed., The Polish School of Architecture, 1942–1945 (Liverpool, 1945), pp. 85–95, 186–88.
49. Majewski, “Jak zbudować ‘Zamek socjalistyczny,’ ” p. 36.
50. Bolesław Bierut, Sześcoletni Plan Odbudowy Warszawy: Refereat Na Konferencji Warszawskiej PZPR w dniu 3 lipca, 1949 g (Warsaw, 1949), pp. 20–21.
51. Krzystof Mordinski, “Marzenia o idealnym mieście—Warszaw socrealistyczna,” Spotkania z Zabytkami 9, 226, pp. 3–8.
52. The designs were published for public consumption in a heavy, luxurious album: Sześcioletni Plan Odbudowy Warszawy (Warsaw, 1950).
53. Anders Åman, Architecture and Ideology in Eastern Europe During the Stalin Era (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), p. 49.
54. Waldemar Baraniewski, “Mi˛edzy opresj˛a a oboj˛etności˛a. Architektura w polsko-rosyjskich relacjach w XX wieku,” available at http://www.culture.pl/pl/culture/artykuly.
55. Edmund Goldzamt, William Morris: A Geneza Spoteczna Architektury Nowoczesnej (Warsaw, 1967).
56. Teresa Torańska, Oni: Stalin’s Polish Puppets, trans. Agnieszka Kołakowska (London, 1988), pp. 306–7.
57. Konrad Rokicki, “Kłopotliwe Dar: Pałac Kultury I Nauki,” Zbudować Warsaw˛e Piekn˛e: O Nowy Krajobraz Stolicy (1944–1956) (Warsaw, 2003), pp. 107–15.
58. Bierut, Sześcoletni Plan, pp. 20–21.
59. David Crowley, Warsaw (London, 2003), p. 54.
60. Conversation with Fr˛ackiewicz.
61. Quoted in Wojciechowski, O Sztuce U˙zytkowej i U˙zytecznej, p. 71.
62. Ibid.
63. Interview with Jackowski.
64. See, for example, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KI3jZtruxvA.
65. Mira Liehm and Antonin J. Liehm, The Most Important Art: East European Film After 1945 (Berkeley, 1977).
66. SNL, Historic Interview Collection: interview with István Szőts, by Sándor Csoóri and Gábor Hanák, December 8, 1988.
67. Gábor Szilágyi, Tűzkeresztség, A magyar játékfilm története 1945–1953 (Budapest, 1992), p. 219.
68. Vsevolod Pudovkin and András Kovács, eds., Pudovkin a magyar filmről (Budapest, 1952), pp. 46, 61, 62.
69. SNL, interview with Szőts.
70. MNFA, Ke 34/10a.
71. Ibid., Ke 34/7.
72. Szilágyi, Tűzkeresztség, pp. 233–36.
73. Ibid., p. 234.
74. SNL, interview with Szőts.
75. Interview with Andrzej Wajda, Warsaw, May 14, 2009.
76. Jan Ciechowicz and Zbigniew Majchrowski, Od Shakespeare’a Do Szekspira (Warsaw, 1993), pp. 24–25.
77. A Generation (1955) was already a post-Stalinist movie, as was Ashes and Diamonds (1958). Mephisto appeared much later, in 1981, by which time obvious allusions to Stalinist terror did not prevent a film from being made or s
hown.
78. Wisława Szymborska, “Ten Dzień,” ˙Zycie Literackie 11, 61 (March 15, 1953).
79. Interview with Ágnes Heller, Budapest, June 2, 2009.
15. Ideal cities
1. Urszula Ciszek-Frankiewicz, O Nowej to Hucie: Ballady i Wiersze (Kraków, 1994).
2. Sándor Horváth, “Alltag in Sztálinváros,” in Christiane Brenner and Peter Heumos, eds., Sozialgeschichtliche Kommunismusforschung Tschechoslowakei, Polen, Ungarn und DDR 1948–1968 (Munich, 2005), p. 512.
3. This section is based on interviews with Júlia Horváth and Elek Horváth, Budapest, June 30, 2009, and Zsófia Tevan, Budapest, June 4, 2009.
4. István Horváth, ed., Dunaferr: Dunai Vasmu Kronika (Dunaújváros, 2000), pp. 31–33.
5. Andreas Ludwig, Eisenhüttendstadt: Wandel einer industriellen Gründungsstadt in fünfzig Jahren (Potsdam, 2000), pp. 53–54.
6. Interview with Stanisław Juchnowicz, Krakow, June 19, 2007; and Idealnego, catalogue of the Wydawnicze Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa (Kraków, 2006), p. 26.
7. Tadeusz Golaszewski, Kronika Nowej Huty (Kraków, 1955), pp. 34–35; see also Nowa Huta: Architektura I tworcy miasta, exhibition of the Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa, Nowohucki Odzial.
8. Interview with Juchnowicz.
9. Herbert Nicolaus and Lutz Schmidt, Einblicke: 50 Jahre EKO Stahl (Eisenhüttenstadt, 2000), p. 47.
10. Jenny Richter, Heike Förster, and Ulrich Lakemann, Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt: Von der Utopie zur Gegenwart (Marburg, 1997), pp. 18–22.
11. Conversation with Dr. Herbert Nikolaus, EKO archivist, Eisenhüttenstadt, March 5, 2007; Ludwig, Eisenhüttendstadt, pp. 28–30; and interviews with Andreas Ludwig, Berlin, December 6, 2006, and Axel Drieschner, Berlin, March 5, 2007.
12. Golaszewski, Kronika Nowej Huty, pp. 29–31.
13. Conversation with Leszek Sibila, Nowa Huta branch of the Historical Museum of the City of Kraków, June 19, 2007, Nowa Huta.
14. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, p. 14; and interview with Juchnowicz.
15. Simone Haine, ed., Reise nach Moskau (Berlin, 1995), pp. 45–53.
16. Ludwig, Eisenhüttendstadt, pp. 44–50.
17. Interview with Juchnowicz.
18. Conversation with Márta Matussné Lendvai, director of the Intercisa Museum, Dunaújváros, May 19, 2009; and Sándor Horváth, A kapu es a hatar: mindenapi Sztálinváros (Budapest, 2004), pp. 14–16.
19. Dagmar Semmelmann, “Man war total entwurzelt und musste erst wieder Wurzeln schlagen”: Zur Integration von Flüchtlingen und Vertriebenen in der SBZ/DDR aus lebensgeschichtlicher Sicht—dargestellt am Sonderfall Eisenhüttenstadt (oral history, published on CD, 2005), p. 82.
20. OSA, 206-1-1:3.
21. Horváth, A kapu es a hatar, pp. 35–36.
22. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, pp. 32–33.
23. Kurt W. Leucht, Die erste neue Stadt in der DDR (Berlin, 1957), pp. 79–83.
24. OSA, 206-1-1:3.
25. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, pp. 33–35.
26. Interview with Kollár-Horváth.
27. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, p. 33.
28. Interview with Tevan.
29. Ambrus Borovszky memoirs, Dunaferr company archives.
30. Interview with Juchnowicz.
31. Horváth, A kapu es a hatar, pp. 158–72.
32. Interview with Karl Gass, Kleinmachnow (Berlin), May 7, 2008.
33. Nicolaus and Schmidt, Einblicke, pp. 54–55.
34. Tadeusz Konwicki, Przy Budowie (Warsaw, 1950).
35. AdK ABK, Nerlinger Collection, folder 141; also, conversation with Petra Ulhmann and Michael Krejsa, Berlin, December 5, 2008.
36. SAPMO-BA, DY 30/IV 2/9.06/175.
37. AdK ABK, Nerlinger Collection, folder 79.
38. Ibid., folders 79, 141.
39. Ibid., folder 79.
40. Günter Feist with Eckhart Gillen, Stationen eines Weges: Daten und Zitate zur Kunst und Kunstpolitik der DDR 1945–1998 (Berlin, 1988), p. 29.
41. AdK ABK, Nerlinger Collection, folder 103.
42. Horváth, A kapu es a hatar, p. 32.
43. Horváth, “Alltag in Sztálinváros,” pp. 517–18.
44. Polish census data, numbers rounded.
45. Mark Pittaway, “Creating and Domesticating Hungary’s Socialist Industrial Landscape: From Dunapentele to Sztálinváros, 1950–1958,” Historical Archaeology 39, 3, Landscapes of Industrial Labor (2005), p. 84.
46. Interview with Józef Tejchma, Warsaw, June 14, 2007; also Józef Tejchma, Po˙zegnanie z władz˛a (Warsaw, 1997), and Józef Tejchma, Z notatnika aktywisty ZMP (Warsaw, 1954).
47. Ryszard Kapuściński, “To tez jest prawda o Nowej Hucie,” Sztandar Młodych 234 (September 30, 1955).
48. Horváth, A kapu es a hatar, pp. 40–52.
49. Ibid., pp. 22–24.
50. Nicolaus and Schmidt, Einblicke, pp. 56–58.
51. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, p. 31.
52. Interview with Tevan.
53. Richter et al., Stalinstadt—Eisenhüttenstadt, p. 14.
54. Ferenc Erdős and Zsuzsanna Pongrácz, Dunaújváros története (Dunaújváros, 2000), pp. 255–56.
55. Márta Matussné Lendvai, “… a nagy Sztálinról nevezhessük el,” Árgus (January 1995), pp. 70–74.
56. Nicolaus and Schmidt, Einblicke, pp. 65–71.
57. Leucht, Die erste neue Stadt in der DDR, p. 86.
58. Interview with Tevan.
59. Reprinted in the Dutch architectural magazine Volume, available at http://volumeproject.org/volume/2009/00/00/Industrialised+Building+Speech%2C+1954/7783.
60. Ludwig, Eisenhüttendstadt, p. 52.
61. Ibid., p. 52.
62. Text available at http://hamlet.pro.e-mouse.pl/teksty/?id=po1939&idu=006; translation is my own.
16. RELUCTANT COLLABORATORS
1. Interview with Herta Kuhrig, Berlin, November 21, 2006.
2. Available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVq8_gRXlpg.
3. Volker Müller, “Es ist so viel Blut umsonst geflossen,” Berliner Zeitung, January 26, 2001, p. 11.
4. Interview with Jerzy Morawski, Warsaw, June 7, 2007.
5. Interview with Colonel Ludwik Rokicki, Warsaw, May 25, 2006.
6. Interview with Jacek Fedorowicz, Warsaw, March 25, 2009.
7. Anna Bikont and Joanna Szczesna, Lawina i Kamienia: Pisarze wobec Komunizmu (Warsaw, 2006), pp. 103–12.
8. See http://fotoforum.gazeta.pl/72,2,746,68832222,74666403.html. The Picasso Warsaw “mermaid” now appears on T-shirts and coffee mugs.
9. György Majtényi, “Őrök a vártán. Uralmi elit Magyarországon az 1950-es, 1960-as években,” in Sándor Horváth, ed., Mindennapok Rákosi és Kádár korában (Budapest, 2008), p. 289.
10. Joel Agee, Twelve Years: An American Boyhood in East Germany (Chicago, 2000), p. 125.
11. OSA, 300/50/6, folders 35, 42, 43.
12. BStU MfSZ, 5960/60, p. 130.
13. Jacek Kuroń, Kuroń: Autobiografia (Warsaw, 2009) (see http://www.krytykapolityczna.pl/Autobiografia/Awans-spoleczny-i-odbudowa/menu-id-232.html).
14. Interview with Wolfgang Lehmann, Berlin, September 20, 2006.
15. Interview with Michał Bauer, Warsaw, June 18, 2007.
16. Andrzej Panufnik, Composing Myself (London, 1987), p. 183.
17. David Pike, The Politics of Culture in Soviet-Occupied Germany, 1945–1949 (Stanford, 1992), p. 365.
18. Jacek Trznadel, Hańba Domowa (Paris, 1986).
19. Panufnik, Composing Myself, p. 191.
20. A similar campaign was launched in France. See André Heynal, “Die ungarische Psychoanalyse unter totalitären Regimen,” in Ágnes Berger et al., Psychoanalyse hinter dem Eisernen Vorhang (Frankfurt, 2010), pp. 27–49.
21. Pál Hermat, Freud, Ferenczi és a magyarországi pszichoanalízis (Budapest, 1994), pp. 393–440.
22. Ferenc Erős, “Ps
ychoanalysis and Cultural Memory,” paper presented at the symposium “Psychoanlaysis Behind the Iron Curtain,” Collegium Hungaricum, Berlin, November 15–16, 2008.
23. Hermat, Freud, pp. 393–440.
24. Interview with György Hidas, Budapest, March 12, 2009.
25. Heynal, “Die ungarische Psychoanalyse.”
26. Interview with Judit Mészáros, Budapest, April 20, 2009.
27. Interview with Antoni Rajkiewicz, Warsaw, June 3, 2007.
28. Interview with Piotr Paszkowski, Warsaw, May 22, 2012.
29. Interview with Fedorowicz.
30. Interview with Karol Modzelewski, Warsaw, April 28, 2009.
31. Interview with Krzysztof Pomian, Warsaw, May 2, 2008.
32. Interview with Morawski.
33. John Connelly, Captive University: The Sovietization of East German, Czech, and Polish Higher Education 1945–1956 (Chapel Hill and London, 2000), pp. 216–17.
34. Interview with Iván Vitányi, Budapest, January 2009.
35. Interview with Elfriede Brüning, Berlin, November 28 and December 5, 2006.
36. Elfriede Brüning, Und außerdem war es mein Leben (Berlin, 2004), pp. 342–45.
37. Ibid., p. 398.
38. Elfriede Brüning, Lästige Zeugen: Tonbandgespräche mit Opfern der Stalinzeit (Halle, 1990).
39. Leopold Tyrmand, “Sprawa Piaseckiego,” Swiat (November 18, 1956).
40. Jan Engelgard, Wielka Gra Bolesława Piaseckiego (Warsaw, 2008), p. 7.
41. Andrzej Jaszczuk, Ewolucja Ideowa Bolesława Piaseckiego (Warsaw, 2005), pp. 27–28, 56–57.
42. Engelgard, Wielka Gra Bolesława Piaseckiego, pp. 66–67.
43. Mikołaj Stanisław Kunicki, “The Polish Crusader: The Life and Politics of Bolesław Piasecki, 1915–1979,” Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, June 2004, pp. 196–203.
44. Czesław Miłosz, Zdobycie Władzy (Olsztyn, 1990), pp. 138–39.
45. Engelgard, Wielka Gra Bolesława Piaseckiego, p. 85.
46. Ibid., p. 218.
47. Interview with Janusz Zabłocki, Warsaw, June 19, 2009.
48. Kunicki, “The Polish Crusader,” pp. 241–43.
49. This is certainly the belief of Piasecki’s family. Conversation with Ładysław Piasecki, Warsaw, February 17, 2012.
50. Interview with Zabłocki.
51. Interview with Leopold Unger, Brussels, March 21, 2009.
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