New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus) reaches two feet in height and blooms in late spring to early summer. The flowers are showy, puffy clusters and are followed by triangular seedpods. The bark is brittle and dark-colored and the roots are red. A tea made from the leaves was once a popular beverage. During the Boston Tea Party era, when imported tea was not available, Martha Washington made tea from this plant for the soldiers. It is also called Revolutionary tea.
Peppergrass fapidium virginicum) is also known as poor man’s pepper and can be found in open areas and along roadways. It can reach two feet in height and has an erect stem among leaves that are clumped at the base. It produces white flowers, which are followed by round, flat, top-notched fruit. (For a photo of peppergrass, see Foxfire 2, page 71.)
Young peppergrass is usually used raw in a tossed salad along with lettuce, dandelions, or other greens. Just wash, cut up, and use. The green seeds of the peppergrass make a good pepper substitute.
Poke (Phytolacca amencana) is found in moist, rich soil in fields, off the banks of creeks, and in other uncultivated areas. Also called pokeweed, it has a very large root that produces smooth stems of up to nine feet in height. These stems are branched and turn from green to reddish purple. The leaves are smooth and can be five inches long and three inches wide. Flowers arrive in summer in stalked whitish clusters on red stems. Berries follow the flowers and mature to a deep purple color. (For photos of poke, see Foxfire 2, pages 55 and 68.)
Pokeweed’s root is poisonous. The plant must be picked in the early spring when the leaves are still yellow-green and the asparagus-like stalks are no longer than four to six inches. This plant is most often gathered for its leaves.
Bernice Taylor warned, “You’ve got to gather the leaves before they get about six inches high. Don’t mess with them after that. When we was little and comin’ up on hard times, the kids, we’d all gather us up some berries and mash ’em up and use ’em for ink.”
The greens are usually washed well, parboiled for about ten minutes, rinsed three or four times, and then fried in plenty of fatback grease until tender. They can then be seasoned with salt and pepper. Some people scramble eggs in the pan along with the greens just before the greens are done. One woman said she served the greens with sliced hard-boiled eggs and chopped onions. Pepper sauce or apple vinegar also adds a nice flavor.
The stalks can also be eaten, and the best flavor comes when the plant is young. The stalks can be sliced (peeled first if desired), rolled in cornmeal or flour, and fried until tender. To pickle the stalks, slice and scald until tender and then add warm vinegar and spices.
Fried poke is believed to be a fine spring tonic. Old stalks, leaves, berries, and the white root should be avoided, as they can be harmful.
Rabbit Tobacco (Gnaphalium obtusifolium) grows in open areas with dry soil. It grows to three feet in height and is woolly. Narrow leaves are woolly on the underside and dark green on top. In summer, flower heads appear. Caution should be taken when using this plant, because it is not edible. This fragrant herb is gathered in its entirety for chewing only. Be careful not to swallow the juice.
Rabbit tobacco was often used just like regular chewing tobacco when the latter was not available or was too expensive. Lawton Brooks said of it, however, “It’ll make your mouth so sore. I’ve blistered my mouth on it many a time.”
PLATE 92 Rabbit Tobacco
Ramp (Allium tncoccum) is a form of wild onion. It grows on the mountains in Southern Appalachia, in dark coves and mossy spots. There are two varieties: red and white. The white ones are supposed to be better than the red. This herb can reach three feet in height, is covered with white hairs, has ovate leaves, and blooms in summer. Its flowers can be white to red-purple. (For a photo of ramp, see Foxfire 2, page 58.)
It is best to gather this herb in its entirety in the very early spring. When the leaves are young and tender, they can be eaten raw, cooked with meat, or chopped fine and fried in grease until tender. They can be sprinkled with vinegar when ready to eat.
Serviceberry (Amelanchier) is one of the first plants with white blossoms in early spring. It was often the only thing in bloom at Eastertime. People would carry the blooms to church for Easter services. That is why it is called serviceberry.
The red edible berries produced after the flowers are one of the first berries to ripen. They are usually eaten plain and were often used for decoration in churches at Easter.
Smooth Sumac (Rhus hirta) is discussed on page 143. This shrub is used for its berries, which are gathered while the hair is on them, which produces a sour taste. The berries can be used for jelly or a lemonade-type drink.
PLATE 93 Smooth Sumac
Solomon’s-Seal (Polygonatum) likes shady areas in light soil and has fragrant, greenish white bell flowers. It is closely related to Lily-of-the-Valley and grows to a height of eight to thirty-six inches. The leaves are oval, pale green, and downy underneath. It has thick running roots, and after it flowers in May and June, it produces black-blue berries. This plant is gathered for the root in fall. The name “Solomon’s-Seal” comes from the scars on the rootstock, which resemble a royal seal. “Solomon” is for King Solomon, the tenth-century-B.C. king of Israel who was famed for his wisdom.
PLATE 94 Solomon’s Seal
While this plant is not edible in its raw form, Native Americans crushed the roots of Solomon’s-Seal to make flour. They also used sections of the root for pickles.
Spring Beauty (Claytonia) enjoys light but rich soil. It gets about six inches tall and has dark green, wedge-shaped leaves. The flowers are white with deep pink veins or are all pink. This plant is gathered for its tasty, edible root and leaves. They have a sharp taste of radishes when raw, and when boiled or baked, they have the taste and texture of baked potatoes.
Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) likes the rich soil of the mountainous areas, valleys, and hills. Its leaves are long, wide, and lobed with many veins. The leaves turn a brilliant red-orange in the fall of the year. This tree was a wonderful source of sweet syrup. To obtain the sap, bore a hole in a sugar maple tree in the fall, insert a small pipe, and hang a bucket from the pipe. Each time the sap freezes and thaws, it pours into the bucket. It is then boiled down into a thick syrup and used for sweetening as a sugar substitute.
Toothwort (Dentaria diphylla) is also known as crinkleroot, cut leaf, pepperwort, and pepperwort. This plant blooms from March through June. The root, which has a peppery flavor, can be eaten as a woodland nibble, or it can be diced and put into salads. It got its common name from the tooth-like projections on the roots. Some people believed that this plant would relieve toothaches because of its resemblance to teeth.
Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) thrives in most cold springs and streams in the mountains and has shiny, ovate leaves. Its flowers are small and white. The seeds were often used in making pickles, using two to three seeds per jar. The dark green leaves are used in salads to lend a spicy, tangy flavor.
White and Speckled Dock (Rumex) grows in fields, yards, and around barns, is about knee-high, and has leaves six to eight inches long, which resemble spinach in appearance. (For photos of dock, see Foxfire 2, pages 55 and 62.)
The leaves were sometimes cooked and eaten by themselves, but more often, they were eaten in combination with other greens such as horseradish leaves. To prepare, parboil until tender, rinse well, and fry in grease.
White Walnut (Jugions cinerea) grows well in rich wooded areas of the Southern Appalachians. Also called butternut, it can reach a height of fifty feet and is covered with rough, wrinkled bark. When young, all parts of the tree are covered with sticky hairs. Leaves consist of as many as seventeen leaflets that are about three inches long. Spring brings both the flowers and the leaves. The nuts ripen in fall and are encased in a hard, wrinkled shell within a sticky husk. This tree is sought for its nuts, which can be eaten alone or used in cookies and cakes.
Wild Blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis) can get up to nine feet tall. It grows on road
sides, in the woods, and along old fence lines and the edges of fields. It produces white flowers in summer, followed by juicy, black, seedy fruits. (For photos of the blackberry, see Foxfire 3, pages 283 and 285.)
Blackberries are a favorite of mountain people. They’re eaten plain, used for pie, jelly, preserves, cobbler, juice, wine, cake, and bread.
Wild Cherry (Prunus serótina) can be found in both open and wooded areas. It can grow to be ninety feet tall with a trunk of four feet in diameter. Its bark is rough and black; its young limbs are smooth and red. In spring, smooth leaves and clusters of drooping white flowers appear. (For a photo of this tree, see Foxfire 3, page 305.)
The fruit ripens in summer, is round, purple to black in color, and has a sweet taste. The bark, stems, and leaves of this tree are poisonous; do not ingest them. The ripe cherries must be picked from green stems, and they must be carefully watched, as the birds often get to them before they are ripe. They are used for jelly, cobbler, and wine.
To make wine: Crush the cherries, put them in a large crock, and cover with boiling water. Cover the crock and let it sit fermenting and bubbling until the juice stops working. Then strain through a cloth, squeezing out all the juice. Put the juice back in the crock, add three cups of sugar to the gallon, cover, and let sit for nine or ten days or until it stops working. Put in bottles, but don’t seal too tightly until it has stopped fermenting completely. The wine is supposed to be very potent.
Wild Grape (Vitis) comes in a tremendous variety in the mountains: possum, river, summer, fall, muscadine, scuppernong, and fox. (For drawings and a photo of the wild grape plant, see Foxfire 3, pages 316 and 318.) They are usually eaten plain or made into jelly, juice, or wine. The leaves can be used in making cucumber pickles. Place them between the layers of cucumbers in a crock. They add a nice flavor to, and help pickle, the cucumbers. Do not eat them.
To make grape juice: Pick and wash wild grapes (any kind), place in a large pan, add enough water to cover, and cook until soft, stirring occasionally. Strain through cheesecloth, heat to a boil, and add sugar to taste. Pour into jars and seal.
To make grape jelly: Pick about a gallon of wild grapes and wash, removing the stems. Crush in a large pan, add a pint of apple vinegar and, if you wish, some cinnamon. Cook for about fifteen minutes slowly, strain through cheesecloth, and boil for about twenty minutes. Add three pounds of sugar and cook until it starts to jell. Put into jars.
Wild Horseradish (Cochleria armoracia) should be picked in the early spring. According to Mrs. Selvin Hopper, “It looks quite a bit like mustard, but the roots are as hot as any red pepper you ever saw.” They can be eaten plain or sliced and added to salad. To pickle them, peel, grate, or slice; cover with vinegar; and add a little salt and pepper. (For a drawing of wild horseradish, see Foxfire 2, page 72.)
Wild Sage (Salvia lyrata) gets to be about a foot high. Its leaves are oblong and wrinkled with strong veins; they are gray-green and covered with soft hairs. The plant’s flowers arrive in summer. Wild sage is odorous and has a bitter taste. It flourishes in mountainous areas and is gathered for the whole herb or for the leaves only. The leaves are good for flavoring when cooking ham and sausage.
PLATE 95 Wild Sage
Wild Strawberry (Fragana virginiana) likes dry soil. It is small, dark green, and has a thick root with hardy runners. The leaves are thick and toothy and grow on six-inch-tall stems. (For a photo of the wild strawberry plant, see Foxfire 2, page 93.)
Wild strawberries are very much like the domestic ones, but they tend to be smaller and have a stronger flavor. This herb is gathered for its leaves and for the small berries in late spring. They make delicious jam, preserves, and pie.
To make jam: Put a quart of berries in a pot and add about a cup of sugar. Bring to a boil, stirring gently. Boil for three minutes, add another cup of sugar, and boil three more minutes. Add a final cup of sugar and boil three more minutes. Skim off any foam, put into jars, and seal. Makes about two pints.
The leaves of this plant were sometimes eaten along with blackberry leaves. They were fried in grease or boiled with fatback in water.
Wild Sweet Potato (Dioscorea villosa) is a vine that looks like a regular sweet potato vine. This vine grows well in damp thickets of other shrubs and bushes. It has a smooth stem that reaches fifteen feet. Leaves are heart-shaped and hairy underneath. In early summer, green to yellow flowers appear in drooping clusters and spiked heads. The fruit is a three-lobed capsule that is similar in color to the flowers and stays on the vine into winter. This fruit ripens in fall. Roots are small and run horizontally under the ground.
This plant is sought in the fall for its roots, or “potatoes,” which are also called wild yam roots or wild yams. To prepare these roots, roast them in ashes or peel, slice, and boil in salted water [so they won’t turn dark]. They can also be fried in grease with brown sugar, salt, and pepper.
Wintergreen (Gaulthena procumbens) grows well in damp, cool, woody areas with sandy soil. It is often found near or under evergreen trees. Usually growing to no more than six inches, the stems are smooth and bare to the tops, where leathery leaves proliferate. It spreads from creeping root stalks and has evergreen leaves, which turn dull red when mature. White, bell-shaped flowers appear in early spring and are followed by bright red, flat, round berries, which ripen in fall and have a spicy taste. Berries can stay on the plant until spring. This herb can be gathered in the fall in its entirety or for the leaves alone. Steam distillation produces fragrant oils. The leaves can be used to make wintergreen tea.
PLATE 96 Wintergreen
Other contributors: Dean Beasley, Gail Beck, Clyde Burrell, Lessie Conner, Mora Garland, Mary Claire Heffington, Margaret Norton, Bill Patton, Billy Joe Stiles, Mr. and Mrs. Marvin Watts
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Coker, William Chambers, Ph.D., LL.D., and Henry Roland Totten, Ph.D. Trees of the Southeastern States. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1934; 3rd ed., 1945.
Duncan, Wilbur H., and Leonard E. Foote. Wildflowers of the Southeastern United States. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1975.
Forey, Pamela. Wild Flowers of North America. New York: W. H. Smith Publications, 1991.
Grieve, M. A Modern Herbal in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications, 1971.
Mellinger, Marie. “Sang-sign.” Foxfire, vol. 2, no. 2 (June 1968), pp. 15, 47–52.
United States Department of Agriculture. The Herb Hunter’s Guide. Beaumont, Calif: Trinity Center Press, 1975.
BEEKEEPING
“There ain’t no bees around much now.”
As recently as the 1940s, almost every family in Southern Appalachia had a stand of bees. Rather than having to purchase sugar, honey was used as a sweetener in recipes. Howard Prater stated, “My son George is a third-generation beekeeper. My father had bees. I learned about bees from my daddy, and then I passed it on to George.”
Jesse Ray Owens also told us that beekeeping is a family tradition. “My family has always had bees and hives as far back as I can remember. My dad told me when he got married that he got his bees from his dad. The old-timers thought that it was bad luck to give bees away, so they’d sell them for a penny or a nickel maybe.
“Some families had more bees than others, but every family seemed to have a few stands of bees. At one time, that honey was the only thing we had to sweeten with. Back during the Depression, we had a big family to feed. We used honey three meals a day—sweetened berries with it, made gingerbread with it.”
Today honey is grown to sell, and honeybees are almost nonexistent in the wild. Predators and diseases have virtually wiped them out. And you find few, if any, bee gums anymore. It is easier, and probably more productive, to use commercial hive bodies. The following accounts range from the basic to very modern. But each adds to the history and how-tos of beekeeping.
—Kaye Carver Collins
BEE GUMS
A bee gum is a hollowed-out section of a log, usually black gum, used for the
bees to make their hive in. The old-timers preferred black gum because it lasted longer, but they would use other types of wood if they had to. Once they burned the wood out of the center of the log, they attached handles and would cover the top with boards that fit tightly over the gum. Then holes were drilled in the handle so a stick could run through the handles and help hold the top boards in place.
PLATE 97 A close-up illustration of one of Jesse Ray Owens’ bee gums made out of a black gum log. The top is covered with boards which fit tightly over the gum, and the holes [with stick running through] are drilled after the boards are fitted onto the gum. Bees will begin building their honeycomb at the top of the gum, attaching it in orderly cells to the underside of the board cover. (Diagram by Brant Sturgill)
Small notches were made on the lower edge of the bee gum for the bees to exit and enter. The gum was set on a large flat surface, either a rock or a board, so the bees would have a landing place.
Cross-section sticks were placed midway down the gum to support the honeycomb, which was built at the top of the gum. Two holes were drilled through the gum, and a stick was pushed all the way through from one side of the gum to the other. A third hole was drilled ninety degrees from the other two and slightly higher. The second stick pushed through the third hole and rested on the other stick.
PLATES 98, 99 Holes are drilled through the gum, and a stick is pushed all the way through from one side of the gum to the other. A third hole is drilled ninety degrees from those two and slightly higher, so that a second stick pushed through this hole will rest on the other stick, as illustrated in the diagram and photo. (Diagram by Brant Sturgill)
Jesse Ray Owens’s father gave him his own bee gum when he was ten years old. Jesse Ray recalled, “I first started helping Dad burn the gums out. He gave me one hive then, and that was mine from then on. Black gum’s [what I like to make my hives out of]. We have used maple, but it don’t last as long as black gum. It usually takes about two or three days to make a hive. You’ve got to get [a tree] out of the woods and up to the house. It takes all day to burn [the logs] out. When you start burning them, you have to put them up off the ground about three or four inches. You put your dry wood down in the little hollow [of the log]. You get the fire started in it and keep it burning, and the hole will get bigger and bigger. You let it get just as big as you want it, and then you turn it upside down and dump all the coals out. When it gets cold, you just scrape it out smooth with a dull hoe.
Foxfire 11: Wild Plant Uses, Gardening, Wit, Wisdom, Recipes, Beekeeping, Toolmaking, Fishing, and More Affairs of Plain Living Page 19