9. O’Leary, B. C., et al., “The First Network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the High Seas: The Process, the Challenges and Where Next,” Marine Policy 36 (2012): 598–605.
10. Iceland tried to scupper the North Atlantic marine protected areas but fortunately were persuaded against it this time. I find it ironic that a country that knows more about environmental degradation than almost any other should wish the same upon the world oceans. In truth, I think the majority of Icelanders don’t want that. From what I have heard it comes down more to the prejudices of their international negotiators, whose worldview was forged in the 1960s’ fog of cod wars and unilateral enlargement of sovereign waters.
11. Haeckel, E., Kunstformen der Natur (Leipzig, Germany: Bibliographisches Institut, 1899).
Chapter 22: Preparing for the Worst
1. Barnosky, A. D., et al., “Has the World’s Sixth Mass Extinction Already Arrived?” Nature 471 (2011): 51–57.
2. Lutz, W., et al., “The End of World Population Growth,” Nature 412 (2001): 543–45.
3. Butchart, S. H. M. et al., “Global Biodiversity: Indicators of Recent Declines,” Science 328 (2010): 1164–68.
4. The Chagossian people were forcibly removed from their homeland by the UK government in the 1960s and 1970s to make way for the U.S. military base.
5. Sheppard, C. R. C., et al., “Archipelago-wide Coral Recovery Patterns Since 1998 in the Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean,” Marine Ecology Progress Series 362 (2008): 109–17.
6. In late 2011, the Australian government launched a consultation on a proposal to turn the whole Coral Sea into a Marine Protected Area, half of which would be protected from all exploitation. Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities: www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/coralsea/consultation/index.html; accessed January 3, 2012.
7. United Nations Environment Program—World Conservation Monitoring Centre: www.unep-wcmc.org/medialibrary/2011/06/23/b3b09e87/Gough%20and%20Inacces sible%20Islands.pdf.
8. Roberts, C. M., et al., “Marine Biodiversity Hot Spots and Conservation Priorities for Tropical Reefs,” Science 295 (2002): 1280–84; Tittensor, D. P. et al., “Global Patterns and Predictors of Marine Biodiversity Across Taxa,” Nature 466 (2010): 1098–1101; Trebilco, R., et al., “Mapping Species Richness and Human Impact Drivers to Inform Global Pelagic Conservation Prioritisation,” Biological Conservation 144 (2011): 1758–66.
9. Fuller, R. A., et al., “Replacing Underperforming Protected Areas Achieves Better Conservation Outcomes,” Nature 466 (2010): 365–67. To be fair to the authors they did mention in passing that their cost-benefit metric might be replaced by another that measured amenity value, but this seemed very much an afterthought.
10. In other words, to levels required to achieve the maximum long-term yield from a stock, i.e., maximum sustainable yield.
11. Roberts, C. M., et al., “Guidance on the Size and Spacing of Marine Protected Areas in England (Commissioned Report, NECR037),” (Peterborough, UK: Natural England, 2008).
12. Munday, P. L., et al., “Climate Change and Coral Reef Connectivity,” Coral Reefs 28 (2008): 379–95.
13. Alward, G. L., The Sea Fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland (Grimsby, UK: Albert Gait, 1932).
Acknowledgments
This is a book that I hadn’t planned to write. My first, The Unnatural History of the Sea, took in a thousand years of history and had the world as its stage. It took five years to research and write, so by the time it was complete I thought I would try something a little less daunting. My agent, Patrick Walsh, and Will Goodlad, my soon-to-be editor at Penguin UK, had other ideas. Over a splendid lunch, they persuaded me to go even bigger: the story of the oceans from the beginning of the world to their possible futures a hundred years from now. I am not sure how or why I agreed, but I am glad I did, even though it has taken another five years! I am grateful to both of you for the boldness of your vision and your faith in me to take it on.
I had the great good fortune to have Joy de Menil from Viking as my editor. Joy has a gift of seeing what is essential and showing an author how to say it with elegance and clarity. She suggested I cut many things from my draft, some of which I thought at first were indispensable. If you have made it this far, you will be glad she wielded her red pen so skillfully.
In researching this book I visited subjects I scarcely even knew existed at the outset. I have been privileged to have so many excellent guides who have been generous with their advice and time. I am indebted to the following for their comments on draft chapters, suggestions for improvements, and for helping me understand: Rebecca Atkins, Geoff Bailey, Andrew Bakun, Bryce Beukers-Stewart, Dee Boersma, Alistair Boxall, Ian Boyd, Sally Brown, John Bruno, Ken Caldeira, Jim Carlton, William Cheung, Daniel Conley, Sarika Cullis-Suzuki, Curtis Ebbesmeyer, Jon Erlandson, Rainer Froese, Jason Hall-Spencer, Julie Hawkins, Mark Hixon, Leigh Howarth, Joanie Kleypas, Dane Klinger, Andrew Knoll, Kevin Lafferty, James McCarthy, Carol Milner, Charles Moore, Roz Naylor, Maggy Nugues, Beth O’Leary, Daniel Pauly, Howard Peters, Jurgenne Primavera, Yasmin Primavera, Nancy Rabalais, Judith Sealey, John Shepherd, Steven Simpson, Albert Tacon, Ruth Thurstan, Carol Turley, Peter Tyack, Charlie Veron, and Oliver Wurl. These folks spared me from many errors. Those that remain are my own. I have been lucky to be able to try out many of the ideas in this book on dozens of enthusiastic and very bright students. They tested the limits of my understanding and forced me to improve my explanations when they were found wanting. I am also grateful for the kindness of the following colleagues who let me use their images in this book: Marco Octavio Aburto-Oropeza, Bryce Beukers-Stewart, Nancy Boucha, Victor Hugo Casillas Romo, Aaron J. Cavosie, Sarika Cullis-Suzuki, Katharina Fabricius, Dave Harasti (who is a superb underwater photographer and whose pictures can be seen at www.daveharasti.com), Elizabeth Gates, Ryan Goehrung, Karin Malmstrom, Guy Marcovaldi, Curtis Marean, Loren McClenchan, Stephen McGowan, Tim Pusack, Link Roberts, William Rodriguez Schepis (Instituto EcoFaxina), Steve Spring, Guy Stevens (The Manta Trust: www.mantatrust.org), Silke Stukenbrock, Bob Talbot, Glen Tepke, John Valley, Kyle Van Houten, Cynthia Vanderlip, and Reuven Walder. Thanks also to Devin Harvey of SeaWeb for his great help in sourcing images.
I have my wife, Julie, and two wonderful daughters to thank for patience, understanding, encouragement, and love throughout the course of writing this book. I am fortunate indeed.
Index
abalone, 51, 196
Acasta Gneiss, 15
acidification, 105–18, 131, 209, 219–21, 234, 262, 273, 274, 283, 337, 340
Africa, 29–31, 32, 72, 199–200, 206
Alaska, 303
albatrosses, 159, 163–64, 221, 267, 320, 326
Alcala, Angel, 295, 296
algae, 219, 268, 271
coraline, 107, 109, 118
toxic, 127–28
Amazon River, 123, 284
anchovies, 37, 70, 123, 216, 249, 252, 315
Anderson, Doug, 167–68
angelfish, 81
anoxia, 23, 73, 74, 79, 117–18, 120,125–27, 221
Anspach, Lewis, 46–47
Antarctica, 65, 93–94, 111
anthias, 1
antibiotics, 253, 255, 256
Apo Island, 295–96, 297
aquaculture, 186, 197, 217, 243–62, 349
disease and, 253–57, 259
forage fish in, 249–53
growth of, 248, 260, 337
history of, 244–47
invasive species and, 186, 197, 257–58
sea ranching, 292
Arctic Council, 142–43
Arctic Ocean, 66, 67, 69
alien species and, 190–91
methane in, 94–95
Aristotle, 149–50
Arran, 294–95
Arrhenius, Svante, 62–63, 64
arthropods, 22–23
artificial reefs, 290–93
Asia, 31
asteroids, 13, 14
Aswan Dam, 123
atmosphere, 12–14, 16, 18, 19, 21–23, 64
Attenborough, David, 278
Australia, 31, 32, 128
Great Barrier Reef, 1–2, 5, 108
Jack Hills, 11–12, 13
Baa Atoll, 320–21
bacteria, 17, 19, 20, 21, 115, 119, 140, 203, 255
Bakun, Andrew, 74, 219
Ballard, Bob, 124
Baltic Sea, 124–26, 225, 263, 269–71,302, 329
Bangladesh, 101
barrier islands, 90, 103
basalt, 13, 14
Baustain, Melissa, 121
beach cleanups, 267–68
Beaufoy, Henry, 54
beech trees, 196
Beijing Olympics, 269
Bellamy, John, 230–31
Benguela, 72–73, 131
Bering Sea, 111
Bertram, James, 49
BFRs, 145–46
biodiversity, 193, 196, 227, 288–89, 294, 303, 304, 316, 338–40, 343
birds, 101–2, 135, 320, 338
noise and, 177
wind farms and, 275
bisphenol A, 161–62
Black Sea, 20–21, 56, 124, 185, 188, 269
Blombos Cave, 29–30
Blue Marine Foundation, 341
Bohai Sea, 221, 257, 259
BP oil spill (Deepwater Horizon oil spill), 133–36, 140, 325, 349
bluefish, 47
boats, see ships and boats
bottom trawling, see trawling anddredging
brachiopods, 82
Bristol Bay, 303
Brominated Flame Retardants, see BFRs
Bromley, Daniel, 310
brown tides, 127–28
Bush, George W., 340, 341, 344
Byron, George Gordon, Lord, vii, 3
Cabo de Palos, 297
Cadiz (Gadir), 34, 35–36
calcium carbonate, 107–10, 112, 114–17, 209, 220, 234, 262, 273
Caldeira, Ken, 107, 277–78
California, 69, 74–75, 345
Cambrian period, 21–23, 24–25, 112, 219
Canfield, Donald, 19
capelin, 46–47
carbon, 23, 24, 220, 289
carbonate, 107–10, 112, 114–17, 209, 220, 234, 262, 273
carbon dioxide, 7, 16, 18, 25–26, 61, 63,64, 68, 72, 76, 79, 92, 104, 112, 115, 179, 220–21, 273–74
acidification and, see acidification
capture and storage of, 282–83, 285
emission reduction, 277–79
extracting from atmosphere andpumping into sea, 282
healthy ecosystems and, 286
ocean fertilization and, 279–82
Carlton, Jim, 197
carp, 173, 244–45, 246, 248, 249, 261, 315
catch shares, 310–11
catfish, 36, 255
Caulerpa, 186–88, 226
ceratid ammonoids, 79
Chagos Archipelago, 340–41
Chan, Francis, 78
charities, 355–60
Charles, Prince, 309
cherts, 17
Chesapeake Bay, 126–27
Cheung, William, 87
China, 271, 329
aquaculture in, 244–45, 248–49, 256–59
Beijing Olympics, 269
Bohai Sea, 221, 257, 259
wind farms in, 275–76
Christianity, 38, 246
clams, 107, 117, 185–86, 248, 262
toxins in, 127
clean coal, 283
climate change, 6, 7, 57, 62–66, 74–75, 78, 79, 219, 221, 288, 298, 315–16, 335
abrupt, 68–69
alien species and, 190–91
cloud brightening scheme and, 283–84
disease and, 209
movement of species due to, 82–84, 86–88, 221
sea levels and, see sea levels
skepticism about, 88–89, 236–37
solutions for, 273–86
sulfate aerosol scheme and, 284–85
tracking with sound transmissions, 170–71
climate oscillations, 88–89, 234–35
Climos, 281
cloud brightening, 283–84
clownfish, 116–17
Cnut the Great, 79
coasts, 2
Dutch and, 95–96, 104
engineered defenses for, 95–96, 100,101, 136, 338
sinking and subsidence of, 98–99,103, 136
wetlands and, 91, 101–4
coccolithophores, 107, 114–15, 221
cod, 38, 51–52, 53, 55, 84, 87, 125, 216, 224–25, 300, 303, 304, 307, 308, 313, 315
Colorado River, 98–99
Columbus, Christopher, 155, 182, 203
comets, 13
conservation, 289, 294–306, 319, 320, 322, 326–27, 340–46
conservation charities, 355–60
Conservation International, 341–42
continents, 14–15
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, 330
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 328
Cook, James, 245–46
copper, 143
coral reefs, 31, 85, 93, 97–98, 108–9,111–12, 114, 196–97, 211–12, 214,225–28, 232, 234, 278, 292, 316,317, 343
acidification and, 107, 108, 110–13, 118, 278, 340
algae and, 107, 109, 118
cementation in, 109, 110
Galápagos Islands, 86, 110
Great Barrier Reef, 1–2, 5, 108
Maldives, 85, 97, 108
coral reef species, 1–2, 5, 32, 81
corals, 1, 2, 84–86, 328, 337, 340–41
bleaching of, 85, 86, 97, 108, 118, 209, 316, 340
disease in, 198–200, 207–11, 225–26
elkhorn, 200
sea fans, 198–200, 209, 210
staghorn, 200
Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave de, 69
Coriolis effect, 69–70, 152, 154
cortisol, 172–73
cosmetics, 162–63, 265–66, 349
Cosquer Cave, 30
Costa Rica, 322
Cousteau, Jacques, 166
crabs, 28, 77–78, 107, 175, 185, 191
currents, 58–62, 66–70, 152–56, 215
Coriolis effect and, 69–70, 152, 154
downwelling, 59–60
Gulf Stream, 58, 60, 62, 66–67
gyres, 152–56, 158, 159, 162, 267
upwelling, 70–74, 77, 220
dams, 39, 91, 92, 98–99, 122–23, 274, 276
damselfish, 1, 165
Darwin, Charles, 16, 21, 80, 82, 199, 233
Darwin Harbor, 196
Day After Tomorrow, The, 66
DDT, 138, 140, 142, 143, 147, 148, 207, 257, 263–65
dead zones, 119–27, 215, 218, 270, 293,329, 337
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 133–36, 140, 325, 349
Delaware Bay, 293
deltas, 91–93, 98–101, 136, 218, 221
Derwent River, 194
deserts, 71, 199
Diamond, Jared, 203
diatomaceous earth, 283
diatoms, 122
diseases, 186, 189, 198–212, 217, 316
aquaculture and, 253–57, 259
climate change and, 209
dispersal of, 204
distemper, 201, 204, 206
fishing and, 210–11
parasites, 183, 186, 189, 196, 202, 206, 209–11, 253–54, 316
physical injury and, 207–9
reports of, 201
ships and, 202–3
transfer from land to sea, 206
viral, 115, 128, 200, 201, 203–6, 210, 254
distemper, 201, 204, 206
diversity, 193, 196, 227, 288–89, 294, 303, 304, 316, 338–40, 343
dogfish, 47
Dogger Bank, 275
“dolphin-friendly” tuna, 315, 324
dolphins, 30, 135, 140–41, 333
communication of, 172
&nbs
p; disease and, 206, 207
hunting of, 204
noise and, 172, 178
red tides and, 127–28
toxins and, 141–42
dottyback, 81
downwelling, 59–60
dredging, see trawling and dredging
drugs, 146–47, 265, 349
Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis, 39–40
dunes, 102
Earth:
atmosphere of, 12–14, 16, 18, 19, 21–23, 64
birth and early periods of, 11–26
plates of, 14–15
Easter Island, 5
East Timor, 32, 33
Ebbesmeyer, Curtis, 149, 152, 153,155–56, 158
echolocation, 178
E. coli, 255
eels, 245
Egypt, 165–66
electronic tagging programs, 324–25
El Niño, 86, 89, 110
endocrine system, 142, 144, 145, 162
England, 98
Erlandson, Jon, 30–31, 32
estuaries, 184–85, 218, 235, 288
European Union, 56, 156, 162, 265, 287
evolution, 16, 51, 52, 80, 82, 112, 181, 233–34
human, 27–31
extinctions, 80, 82, 214, 216, 299, 339
invasive species and, 194
mass, 25, 26, 79, 82, 107, 112, 334, 335
Fan Li, 244
fertilizers, 7, 120, 122, 125, 209–10, 218,235, 237, 263, 269, 337
fight-or-flight response, 172–73
Fiji, 296
Firth of Clyde, 42, 53–55, 221, 294–95,303, 314
fish:
body size of, 51, 52, 76–79
primitive, 24
reproduction in, 51–52, 84, 298–99
fish consumption, 311–12
advice for, 315, 351–54
salt preservation in, 35–36, 37, 39
in sauces, 37–38
variety vs. sustainability in, 300
fisheries, 5, 7, 72, 216, 227
dams and, 39
statistics on, 43–45, 48
wild, 260
fish farming, see aquaculture
fishing, 3, 4, 7, 27–41, 79, 215–16, 287, 288, 307–15
availability of fish and, 42–57
catch shares and, 310–11
commercial, 33–34, 40–41
diseases and, 210–11
“down the food web,” 52, 304
early methods of, 38–40
with electronic fish finders, 41, 54
fish reproduction and, 51–52, 298–99
and growing demand for fish, 216–17
hazards from gear from, 135–36, 161, 178
with hooks and lines, 32–34, 40, 41
The Ocean of Life Page 45