ALSO BY GEORGE LAKOFF
Don’t Think of an Elephant!
Know Your Values and Frame the Debate
Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think
Metaphors We Live By
More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor
Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things:
What Categories Reveal About the Mind
Philosophy in the Flesh:
The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought
Where Mathematics Comes From:
How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being
WHOSE FREEDOM?
THE BATTLE OVER AMERICA’S
MOST IMPORTANT IDEA
GEORGE LAKOFF
FARRAR, STRAUS AND GIROUX / NEW YORK
To Kathleen
Farrar, Straus and Giroux
19 Union Square West, New York 10003
Copyright © 2006 by George Lakoff
All rights reserved
Distributed in Canada by Douglas & McIntyre Ltd.
Printed in the United States of America
First edition, 2006
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lakoff, George.
Whose freedom? : the battle over America’s most important idea /
George Lakoff.— 1st ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-374-15828-6 (hardcover: alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-374-15828-2 (hardcover: alk. paper)
1. Liberty—United States. 2. Conservatism—United States. 3. Progressivism (United States politics) 4. United States—Politics and government—2001– I. Title.
JC599.U5L25 2006
323.440973—dc22
2006004265
Designed by Jonathan D. Lippincott
www.fsgbooks.com
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
CONTENTS
Introduction: In the Name of Freedom
PART I: UNCONTESTED FREEDOM
1 Freedom Is Freedom Is Freedom
2 Why Freedom Is Visceral
3 The Logic of Simple Freedom
PART II: CONTESTED FREEDOM
4 The Nation-as-Family Metaphor
5 Progressive Freedom: The Basics
6 Conservative Freedom: The Basics
7 Causation and Freedom
PART III: FORMS OF FREEDOM
8 Personal Freedom and Populism
9 Economic Freedom
10 Religion and Freedom
11 Foreign Policy and Freedom
PART IV: IDEAS AND ACTION
12 Bush’s “Freedom”
13 Taking Back Freedom
Suggested Reading
Acknowledgments
INTRODUCTION:
IN THE NAME OF FREEDOM
Ideas matter. Perhaps no idea has mattered more in American history than the idea of freedom.
The central thesis of this book is simple. There are two very different views of freedom in America today, arising from two very different moral and political worldviews dividing the country.
The traditional idea of freedom is progressive. One can see traditional values most clearly in the direction of change that has been demanded and applauded over two centuries. America has been a nation of activists, consistently expanding its most treasured freedoms:
The expansion of citizen participation and voting rights from white male property owners to non–property owners, to former slaves, to women, to those excluded by prejudice, to younger voters
The expansion of opportunity, good jobs, better working conditions, and benefits to more and more Americans, from men to women, from white to nonwhite, from native born to foreign born, from English speaking to non–English speaking
The expansion of worker rights—freedom from inhumane working conditions—through unionization: from slave labor to the eight-hour day, the five-day week, worker compensation, sick leave, overtime pay, paid vacations, pregnancy leave, and so on
The expansion of public education from grade school to high school to college to postgraduate education
The expansion of knowledge through science from isolated figures like Benjamin Franklin to scientific institutions in the great universities and governmental institutions like the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health
The expansion of public health and life expectancy
The expansion of consumer protection through more effective government regulation of immoral or irresponsible corporations and class action suits within the civil justice system
The expansion of diverse media and free speech from small newspapers to the vast media/Internet possibilities of today
The expansion of access to capital from wealthy landholders and bankers to all the ways ordinary people—more and more of them—can borrow money today
The expansion, throughout the world, of freedom from colonial rule—for the most part with the backing of American foreign policy
These are among the progressive trends in American history. Progress has not always been linear, and the stages have been far from perfect, but the trends have been there—until recently. The rise of radical conservatism in America threatens to stop and reverse these and other progressive trends together with the progressive ideal of freedom that has propelled them all.
Indeed, the reversal has proceeded at a rapid pace. Voting rights are being threatened, good-paying jobs eliminated or exported, benefits cut or eliminated. Public education is being gutted and science is under attack. The media is being consolidated, corporate regulations eliminated, the civil justice system threatened, public health programs cut. Unions are being destroyed and benefits taken away. There are new bankruptcy laws limiting access to capital for ordinary people. And we are seeing the promotion of a new form of free-market colonialism in the guise of free-trade agreements and globalization, and even the use of military force to support these policies.
But for radical conservatives, these developments are not movements away from freedom but toward their version of freedom. Where most Americans in the last century have seen an expansion of freedoms, these conservatives see curtailments of what they consider “freedom.” What makes them “conservatives” is not that they want to conserve the achievements of those who fought to deepen American democracy. It’s the reverse: They want to go back to before these progressive freedoms were established. What they want to conserve is, in most cases, the situation prior to the expansion of traditional American ideas of freedom: before the great expansion of voting rights, before unions and worker protections and pensions, before civil rights legislation, before public health and environmental protections, before Social Security and Medicare, before scientific discoveries contradicted fundamentalist religious dogma. That is why they harp so much on narrow so-called originalist readings of the Constitution—on its letter, not its spirit—on “activist judges” rather than an inherently activist population.
We will be asking three questions:
How are radical conservatives achieving their reversal of freedom?
Why do they want to reverse traditional freedoms?
What do they mean by “freedom”?
Freedom defines what America is—and it is now up for grabs. The radical right is in the process of redefining the very idea. To lose freedom is a terrible thing; to lose the idea of freedom is even worse.
The constant repetition of the words “liberty” and “freedom” by the right-wing message machine is one of the mechanisms of the idea theft in progress. When the words are used by the right, their meaning shifts—gradually, almost
imperceptibly, but it shifts.
The speeches at the 2004 Republican National Convention constantly invoked the words “freedom,” “free,” and “liberty.” George W. Bush, in his second inaugural address, used these words forty-nine times in a twenty-minute speech—every forty-third word. And if you take into account the opposites—”tyranny,” “dictatorship,” “slavery,” and so on—as well as associated words like “democracy,” the proportion rises higher. From freedom fries to the Freedom Film Festival, the right wing is claiming the words “liberty” and “freedom” as their brand: Jerry Falwell’s National Liberty Journal, Liberty University, Liberty Counsel, Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom, and the list goes on.
To many progressives, the right’s use of “freedom” is pure hypocrisy, and George W. Bush is the leading hypocrite. How, liberals ask, can Bush mean anything at all by “freedom” when he imprisons hundreds of people in Guantánamo indefinitely with no due process in the name of freedom; when he sanctions torture in the name of freedom; when he starts a preemptive war on false premises and retroactively claims it is being waged in the name of freedom; when he causes the deaths of tens of thousands of innocent Iraqi civilians in the name of freedom; when he supports oppressive regimes in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Pakistan, while claiming to promote freedom in the Islamic world; when he sanctions the disenfranchisement of African-American voters in Florida and Ohio in the name of freedom; when he orders spying on American citizens in America without a warrant in the name of freedom; when, in the name of freedom, he seeks to prevent women from making their own medical decisions, to stop loving couples who want to marry, to stop families from being able to remove life supports when their loved ones are all but technically dead.
How can Bush mean anything by “freedom” when he works against Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s four freedoms: freedom of speech and religion and freedom from want and fear? His policies work against freedom from want by pushing more Americans into poverty, by denying even a minuscule increase in the minimum wage, by seeking to end Social Security. By promoting a siege mentality—announcing orange alerts and talking relentlessly about “terror”—he creates and maintains a sense of fear, virtually a permanent state of emergency, rather then offering freedom from fear. The U.S.A. Patriot Act, passed at the height of this fear, provides new police powers to the government, abridging personal freedoms. He works against freedom of speech by encouraging media consolidation, by spying on telephone calls, by having the IRS threaten the tax status of groups that speak out against him, by requiring all attendees at his public speeches to sign oaths of loyalty to him, and by classifying more government documents than any other recent administration. He works against freedom of the press by secretly paying journalists to promote his policies and by denying access to reporters who criticize his policies. And he works against freedom of religion by seeking to impose school prayer upon those who don’t want to pray, by allowing federal funds to be used to promote one religion (Christianity), by tacit support of bringing a religious idea—”intelligent design”—into the classroom, and by pushing faith-based governmental programs of all kinds, programs that put taxpayer money and social control into the hands of churches approved by his administration. How, progressives ask, can he possibly mean what he says when he claims that such actions promote “freedom”? The conclusion of many progressives is that the use of the word in the face of these policies tends to make the word meaningless.
Yes, Bush’s acts do contradict the progressive idea of freedom—my idea of freedom. But progressives are engaging in fantasy when they assume that their idea of freedom is the only possible one and thereby deny that the radical right has any idea at all of freedom. This form of denial results in the view that Bush is saying nothing when he speaks of “freedom,” that he is just degrading the language, that he is no more than a cynical and opportunistic propagandist who doesn’t mean what he says.
In thinking this way, progressives are blinding themselves to the real and constant progress by the radical right toward cultural and political domination. It is tempting to dismiss Bush and members of the radical right as liars and hypocrites—but this is too easy. It is much scarier to think of Bush and others on the right as meaning what they say—as having a concept of “freedom” so alien to progressives that many progressives cannot even understand it, much less defend against it. Even more troubling is that the right’s gradual takeover of the idea of freedom is going by unnoticed by a great many people.
Most Americans believe that “freedom” has only one meaning. It serves the purposes of the right when the public believes that conservatives and progressives are using the same idea, disagreeing only over which side is its more vigorous champion. It serves the purposes of the right to say that there is no theft, not even a challenge, going on. The longer the attempted theft remains invisible, the better its chance of succeeding.
Even Democrats with impeccable liberal credentials are helping the radical right by engaging in denial. I was a guest on an NPR program just after Bush’s second inaugural, discussing the remarkable repetition of the word “freedom” in the speech. The guest who followed me was the brilliant and articulate Elaine Kamarck, an important figure in the Clinton administration, now at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government. She denied that there was, or could be, more than one meaning of freedom. “Freedom is freedom is freedom,” she declared with utter assurance, echoing Gertrude Stein’s “A rose is a rose is a rose.” The right-wing talk-show host Rush Limbaugh soon echoed Kamarck: There’s one idea of freedom and only one. If Bush-Limbaugh freedom is the only idea of freedom in America, then the radical right has won.
But they have not won, not yet!
If they had won, if freedom had been redefined throughout America in their terms, if our freedom were gone and theirs were in its place, then there would be no need for them to repeat the word over and over and over. The point of repetition is to change not just people’s minds but also their very brains. If they had succeeded in getting their view of freedom into the brains of all, or even most, Americans, then they could simply take freedom as they define it for granted.
THE MIND AND FREEDOM
I will be approaching the idea of freedom from the perspective of cognitive science—the interdisciplinary study of mind.
There are many excellent books on freedom written from various intellectual perspectives: intellectual history, political science, public policy, sociology, law, philosophy. The history of attempts to understand the idea of freedom has a great deal to teach us, and I am deeply grateful for the important scholarship in these areas. Nonetheless, these studies have limitations. Freedom and other political ideas are products of the human mind. They are inescapably the results of human mental processes. Cognitive science and cognitive linguistics, as these fields have developed in the past three decades, have given us a new and deeper understanding of mental processes and the ideas they generate, including political ideas.
Cognitive science has produced a number of dramatic and important results—results that bear centrally on contemporary politics, though in a way that is not immediately obvious.
• We think with our brains.
The concepts we think with are physically instantiated in the synapses and neural circuitry of our brains. Thought is physical. And neural circuits, once established, do not change quickly or easily.
• Repetition of language has the power to change brains.
When a word or phrase is repeated over and over for a long period of time, the neural circuits that compute its meaning are activated repeatedly in the brain. As the neurons in those circuits fire, the synapses connecting the neurons in the circuits get stronger and the circuits may eventually become permanent, which happens when you learn the meaning of any word in your fixed vocabulary. Learning a word physically changes your brain, and the meaning of that word becomes physically instantiated in your brain.
For example, the word “freedom,” if repeatedly
associated with radical conservative themes, may be learned not with its traditional progressive meaning, but with a radical conservative meaning. “Freedom” is being redefined brain by brain.
• Most thought is unconscious.
Because thought occurs at the neural level, most of our thinking is not available to conscious introspection. Thus, you may not know your own reasoning processes. For example, you may not be aware of the moral or political principles that lie behind the political conclusions that you reach quickly and automatically.
• All thought uses conceptual frames.
“Frames” are mental structures of limited scope, with a systematic internal organization. For example, our simple frame for “war” includes semantic roles: the countries at war, their leaders, their armies, with soldiers and commanders, weapons, attacks, and battlefields. The frame includes specific knowledge: In the United States, the president is the commander in chief and has war powers; war’s purpose is to protect the country; the war is over and won when the other army surrenders. All words are defined with respect to frames.
Thus, declaring a “war on terror” against an elusive and amorphous enemy gave President Bush special war powers that could be extended and used indefinitely, even against American citizens. The Iraq War framed Iraq as a threat to our nation, making anyone against the war a traitor; when the United States marched into Baghdad, the war frame said the war was over—”Mission Accomplished.”
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