Criminal Masterminds

by Anne Williams

  An ancient Roman practice was to hold a member of your enemy’s family hostage, as a security that the conditions of treaties were upheld. Attila, himself, was no stranger to this practice, as he was held as a hostage by the Romans. During this period he was trained and educated by the Romans and also learned many of their secret methods of warfare. Once he was released, Attila vowed to avenge the nation he so despised, and put his newly acquired skills into use by forming an army. He realised that it would take incredible leadership skills to unite the Hun savages, and through his carefully planned training he managed to earn respect and loyalty from the various chieftains and warriors now under his command.

  The Huns arrived on the outskirts of the Roman Empire towards the end of the fourth century. They were a wild band of horsemen who soon struck fear wherever they went. In their effort to reach Rome, the Huns crossed paths with the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, two major German tribes, invading their huge empires. The Germans had never witnessed such behaviour, describing them as ‘barbarians with an appetite for raw meat’. They fought with complete disregard for their own safety, usually firing from a distance with sharpened bones fired from a shaft. When fighting in close combat the Huns would throw a net over their enemies, rendering them powerless to thrust their swords. When the Huns defeated the Ostrogoths, their king took his own life because he felt he could not stand up to the new ruthless rulers. The Huns then attacked the Visigoths, the majority of whom fled to the Roman Empire for protection.

  However, the Visigoths and Romans were not a good combination and they remained firm enemies. In fact it was the enormity of the migration of Visigoth refugees fleeing the Huns that hastened the fall of the Roman Empire.

  a new leader

  Events took a downhill turn for the Romans when Attila the Hun succeeded Rugila to the throne in

  ad 434. Attila and his brother Bleda, who were sons of Rugila’s brother Mundzuk, inherited the huge Hun Empire. Their new empire stretched from the Alps and the Baltic in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east. Attila, who was only twenty-one years old when he became king, was far more aggressive and ambitious than his predecessor, making him a rather unpredictable leader. Despite being young he was both brave and ambitious and was determined to be a powerful leader. He delighted in war and ruled with a superiority that scared even his own subjects. One of Attila’s and Bleda’s first joint actions was the negotiation of a peace treaty with the eastern Roman Empire. Under the terms of this treaty the Romans were forced to pay double the original annual subsidy of gold to the Huns to keep the empire from being attacked. The two brothers immediately started to strengthen and expand their kingdom, and bitter fighting broke out with their neighbours. Attila’s Huns soon became a formidable fighting force, no longer the horse nomads of their ancestors. Attila, who wanted to be a sole ruler, solved the problem by killing his brother in ad 445.

  For five years, Attila was true to his word and the Huns left the Romans alone, but a new emperor came to power and refused to pay the tribute to Attila and his army. This resulted in a series of battles in which Attila and his barbarians ruthlessly destroyed city after city, before finally reaching Constantinople. Realising that it was hopeless for his archers to try and penetrate the great walls of the city, Attila captured the vestiges of the Roman forces who had withdrawn to Gallipoli and killed every one of them. The emperor, realising that he had been beaten, agreed to pay the arrears of the tribute, which amounted to 6,000 pounds of gold. To make matters worse for the Romans, Attila now trebled the annual payment they were forced to pay.

  attila and princess honoria

  Although Attila was very unpopular with the Romans, he had caught the attention of one particular woman. Honoria was the sister of the western Roman emperor, Valentinian III. Her brother had placed her in exile in a convent for having an affair with an officer in her household, despite the fact that she was betrothed to a senator. Desperate to get out of her plight, she sent a pleading letter to Attila with her ring, asking for his help. Attila, who could see the opportunity to gain a large dowry, approached her brother to ask permission to marry Honoria. At the same time he asked for half of the Roman Empire as a dowry, a request which, not surprisingly, was immediately turned down.

  Despite a second attempt to win the hand of Honoria, his advances were once again spurned by Valentinian, which forced Attila into taking action. In ad 451, Attila amassed together an army of over 700,000 men and marched across Germany into Gaul. They burned and looted towns and raped, killed and beat the inhabitants – even the children and babies were not safe from their brutality. Churches and monasteries were razed to the ground without remorse, adding to the Huns’ already menacing image. Atilla was a splendid spectacle in battle, riding a magnificent black horse ahead of his savage barbarians bearing grotesquely scarred faces, adding to the psychological effect they had on everyone they encountered. As Attila and his Huns marched across Gaul they left a trail of devastation, and it wasn’t until they reached the city of Orleans that they met with any opposition. Orleans, like most major cities in those days, was surrounded by fortified walls. As soon as the inhabitants learned of the advancement of the Huns, they closed their gates and prepared to defend themselves.

  Although Attila attempted to break down the defences at Orleans, he was thwarted by a large army advancing towards the city. The army was a mixture of 300,000 Visigoths and Romans, led by a Roman general by the name of Aëtius and the Visigoth king Theodoric. The Visigoths who, like the Romans, were determined to overcome the Hun army, had joined forces to try and defeat their enemy. Attila, on seeing the army, decided to take his forces and march to the neighbouring area of Champagne to a place called Châlons. The Romans and Visigoths pursued Attila and a fierce battle followed, with both sides fighting bravely for ultimate victory. The Huns managed to drive back the opposing army and in so doing killed Theodoric.

  Aëtius now feared for his own life and felt it wouldn’t be long before his own army were beaten by the Huns. However, the son of Theodoric, Thorismond, who had taken command of the Visigoths when his father was killed, led his army in a charge against the Huns. They were desperate for revenge for the death of their king, so they fought with extra courage and strength. They quickly managed to overpower the Huns and Attila decided to flee from the battlefield and return to his camp.

  This was the first time that Attila had ever experienced defeat and with his army greatly depleted, he prepared for his own demise. On reaching his camp, Attila built a huge funeral pyre out of his belongings and wagons, which he was prepared to light and jump into the flames if the Romans came to attack him.

  ‘Here I will perish in the flames, rather than surrender to my enemies,’ he cried.

  However, the Romans did not come, and the Huns continued their long retreat across the Rhine, struggling with the harsh winter conditions. Although Attila and his men were considerably weakened, they were not defeated, fighting had been their life and their spirits remained high.

  attila rises again

  In ad 452, with his strength renewed, Attila set out once again to claim Honoria as his bride and marched upon Rome with unrestrained anger. His first target was the city of Aquileia and at the sight of the warring barbarians, the people fled in fright to the surrounding hills and mountains. Others fled to the small islands of the lagoons lining the western coast of the Adriatic. Although many of

  the refugees returned to their mainland homes after Attila withdrew, the seed was planted for the founding of Venice.

  Following the siege of Aquileia, Attila and his army marched towards Rome. Emperor Valentinian and the inhabitants of Rome were greatly alarmed at the approach of the fearsome Huns. However, just as Attila was approaching the city, he met Pope Leo I, who persuaded him to turn his troops back. In a surprising turn of events, Attila told his men that he no longer had any interest in marrying Honoria or gaining more land and called the attack off. The true reason for this change of heart will always remain a
mystery, although there is evidence that many of Attila’s men were struck down with the plague. It has also been said that the apostles Peter and Paul appeared to Attila in his camp and threatened him with death if he attacked Rome.

  the final marriage

  In ad 453, Attila married a very beautiful young girl by the name of Ildico, despite the fact that he already had numerous other wives. However, Attila never saw his wedding day out, because he died from the excesses of food and drink at his wedding feast. He fell into a drunken sleep lying on his back, and the blood from a nose haemorrhage flowed down the back of his throat and killed him. His royal attendants on hearing shouts from Attila’s bedchamber, broke down the door and found Attila lying dead on the floor, with Ildico sobbing loudly still wearing her wedding veil. Then, as was the custom of the Huns, they cut Ildico’s hair and then disfigured their faces grotesquely and smeared the blood on the face of the dead warrior. His body was laid out in a plain, silk tent for people to come and pay their respects. They enclosed his body in three coffins – one of gold, one of silver and one of iron – and buried him at night in a secret location in the mountains. When the funeral was over the Huns killed the slaves who had dug the grave so that the place of his burial would remain a mysterious secret. Today, Attila is remembered as one of the most feared men in ancient history.

  Genghis Khan

  Genghis Khan was the founder of the Mongol Empire and a supremely capable military leader and administrator. He formed an ingenious intelligence network from which he was able to obtain valuable information against his enemies, and which helped him build his growing empire. However, history has shown us that Khan’s enemies suffered greatly at the hands of this powerful ruler. His methods were ruthless and bloodthirsty, often massacring whole cities that tried to oppose him.

  THE BOY GROWS UP

  Temujin, as he was originally known, was born c. ad 1162, the son of a minor Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain, Yisugei. Legend tells the story that Temujin was born with a blood clot in the palm of his hand, indicating that he was going to be a formidable leader. When Temujin was only nine years old, his father was poisoned and his mother was left to raise him on her own.

  Mongols grew up on horses and were used to hunting, and Temujin became adept at using the bow and arrow. They were a race of nomadic herdsmen who lived on the grassy plains just north of the Gobi Desert and south of the Siberian forests. They generally hunted in small groups and were led by a chief, or khan, living in portable tent-like structures called gers, or perhaps better known, as yurts. It was a tough existence and Temujin quickly learned the value of making allies to help him through the hard times. As he grew into a fine, strong, young man, Timujen gained respect through his bravery, intelligence and power of persuasion – in fact he scared the other khans with his ability to make others do what he wished.

  As he grew into adulthood, Temujin made an ally of Ong Khan, an old friend of his father’s. Ong Khan saw the potential in the young man and he asked Temujin to join him on a campaign against the Tartars of the west. The young man fought well and so impressed Ong Khan that he decided to adopt Temujin and appoint him his legal heir. Ong Khan’s legitimate son, Senggum, was understandably put out by this decision and he attempted to assassinate his rival. However, Temujin was informed of the attempt on his life and managed to defeat Senggum and his supporters in a battle.

  Ong Khan had spent many years building up a coalition of Mongols and other tribes and, on his death in 1206, Temujin took the title of ‘Universal Ruler’, which translates into Genghis Khan.

  brilliant organizational skills

  Genghis Khan continued to build up his army and destroyed what was left of any old enemy tribes. He also created a new body of law, which was something he worked on for the remainder of his life. As a teenager, before he became khan, Temujin’s beloved young wife, Borte, was kidnapped. He was devoted to her and spent a long time trying to rescue her, which resulted in the massacre of an entire tribe. Because kidnapping of women had caused much feuding among the Mongols, as khan, Genghis made the practice illegal. He also declared that all children were legitimate, regardless of who their parents were, and he also made it law that no woman could be sold into an arranged marriage. Genghis Khan also made it a capital offence to steal an animal and regulated hunting so that meat was available for everyone. As he expanded his empire, Genghis Khan created order but, despite being a genius at organization, he still managed to terrify the continent stretching from Peking to the Crimea. If his opponents were not submissive and remained defiant, Genghis attacked. If, however, they agreed to his terms, he usually allowed them to remain in power, so long as they paid extortionate taxes and provided him with military power. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols rapidly conquered an enormous region of Asia. The empire they eventually carved out took in the whole of Central Aisa from China to Persia and stretched as far west as the Mediterranean.

  GENGHIS KHAN AND THE SILK ROAD

  The Silk Road (or Silk Route) is one of the oldest routes of international trade in the world and was an important path for communication between different parts of the empire. Realising the importance of this major trading route, Genghis Khan advanced to his south in an effort to secure his borders. He made an alliance with the Uighurs, who were closer than the Mongols were to the Silk Road and its subsequent wealth. To advance his progress even further, Genghis Khan arranged for his daughter to be married to the Uighur Khan. The Uighurs were far wealthier than the Mongols, who only had leather, fur and felt to trade. When the Uighur Khan arrived at the wedding with a caravan full of gold, silver, pearls and fancy silks and satins, it gave Genghis Khan the much needed booty to pay his troops.

  In 1209, Genghis Khan moved against the Tanguts, who were farmers and herders in north­west China. Like the Uighurs, they were rich in goods and Genghis Khan needed their wealth to improve his status. Because the Mongols were outnumbered by two to one they had to learn new ways of warfare. By depriving them of supplies and water, they managed to overcome the fortified cities, something that they had not encountered in earlier battles.

  The Ruzhen Jin occupied northern China and had a firm control of goods along the Silk Road. The leader of the Ruzhen Jin met with Genghis Khan and demanded that the Mongols submit to his army and become vassals. Genghis Khan knew that if he defied this barbarian enemy, he would lose access to vital goods and he made the decision to go to war. In 1211, the Mongols attacked. The Ruzhen Jin had a large and effective army, but they were also under attack from the Chinese south of the Yangzi River. They managed to force the Chinese to retreat and Genghis used this to his advantage. Taking advantage of newly-acquired Chinese siege machines, the Mongols surged forward and ravaged the countryside as they went. They swept from city to city, a savage force which their opponents were totally unprepared for. In the name of conquest, they hacked, burned, slashed and obliterated anything in their path. They inflicted terror and bloodshed on the Ruzhen subjects and gained vital information and booty from each conquest. Revered as a god among his warriors, no name inspired more terror than that of Genghis Khan.

  By 1214, Genghis Khan had taken control of the majority of China north of the Yellow River. The Ruzhen emperor was forced to recognize the Mongol leader’s authority and relented to paying him the taxes he demanded.

  expansion

  After five years of fighting the Mongols returned to their native Mongolia, taking with them many engineers who had now become a regular part of the army. They had also taken captive musicians, translators, doctors and learned scribes, along with wagons of goods, including silk, rope, cushions, blankets, robes, rugs, porcelain, perfumes, jewellery, wine, honey, medicines, bronze, gold, silver and many other valuable items. The Mongols were pleased to be home and settled into their new prosperous lifestyle with ease. However, it wasn’t long before Genghis Khan yearned more wealth and supplies for his nation.

  In 1218, an event took place that would change Ghenghis Khan’s real
m into a mighty empire. A Mongol caravan travelling from Mongolia to the Persian Empire was stopped by the governor of a Persian frontier province in modern-day Uzbekistan. The governor suspected, and probably rightly, that the caravan included several spies and he ordered the caravan to be attacked and its good seized. He had the chief of the envoys killed and the beards of the others burned, and sent them back to Genghis Khan. This violation of the safe-conduct of caravans was unforgivable, and Genghis sent ambassadors to the Shah of Persia, demanding that the offending governor be turned over to him. The shah, who laughed in the faces of the ambassadors, decided to have them all killed for their impudence. As for Genghis Khan, this was another unforgivable offence and he declared war.

  Although the Mongols had already conquered a large area with considerable bloodshed, they had barely made any impact on the frontiers of the vast Persian Empire. Once again Genghis Khan used his intelligence and information that he had gathered from previous battles. He knew that the shah’s empire was rather fragmented by different ethnic and religious groups, who were only kept under control by force. What happened next was a very bold act on behalf of Genghis Khan. He ordered two of his generals to hunt down the shah within his own empire and kill anyone who interfered. Word soon spread that anyone who fought against the warring Mongols faced certain death, and the shah fled for his life towards the Caspian Sea, leaving his subjects to be raped and slaughtered.