Criminal Masterminds

by Anne Williams

  As Genghis Khan worked his way through his new territory, he left behind him a bloody trail, as one city after another was captured by the Mongols. Women were raped, inhabitants were tied up and shot with arrows, while others were decapitated. Rich inhabitants were tortured until they revealed where they had hidden their wealth.

  As the remorseless army made its way across Armenia and Georgia, Europe became aware of the power of the Mongols and their leader for the first time. Unlike the cumbersome armies of Europe, the Mongols travelled light and were consequently more mobile. They were able to outwit and tire any pursuers, often spending days at a time in the saddle. The Mongols’ ability to travel up to 160 km (100 miles) per day, was unheard of by armies of that time.

  Although the Mongols were totally ruthless in battle, they always displayed extraordinary military discipline. Originally of nomadic origin, they were very quick to adapt to new siege tactics and they were soon an army with a fearful reputation.

  the death of a great leader

  Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia in 1225, having enjoyed great military success. He now ruled everything between the Caspian Sea and Beijing and had control of trade through his empire. For the first time, numerous European envoys, merchants and craftsmen could travel in relative safety throughout Central Asia as far as China.

  Genghis Khan went to war one final time when he believed that the Tangut people were not living up to his required standards. Even at the age of sixty-five, Genghis Khan still led his army into battle, and it was in 1227, in his fight against the Tanguts, that he allegedly fell of his horse and died.

  In terms of area, Genghis Khan was the greatest conqueror of all time. Although he ultimately paved the way for peace and security, it was at the expense of great destruction in the terms of life and property. He was an organizational and strategic genius and even after his death, the Mongol armies continued to dominate the battlefields. Vengeance was Genghis Khan’s usual reason to go to war and he slaughtered people without giving it a second thought. Terror was his principle weapon of war and he is reputed to have said:

  The greatest joy a man can know is to conquer his enemies and drive them before him. To ride their horses and take away their possessions. To see the faces of those who were dear to them bedewed with tears, and to clasp their wives and daughters in his arms.

  Caligula

  Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was born in ad 12 and has gone down in history as a coarse and cruel tyrant. He was given the nickname ‘Caligula’ when he was between two and four years old, from the miniature version of military sandals (caligae) that he wore when he lived on the Rhine with his father’s legions. Caligula was a tall, rather thin man, who lost his hair at an early age. This was a rather touchy subject. In fact it affected him so much that it was a capital crime for anyone to look down from a high place as Caligula walked by. By contrast, his body was covered with hair, another sensitive topic, and his subjects made sure they made no mention of him being ‘hirsute’ within his earshot. He was a man with an incredible amount of energy and a sick passion for sadism, which led to many cruel and reckless schemes.

  the young caligula

  Caligula was the third son of Germanicus – who was the nephew of Emperor Tiberius – and Agrippina the elder. His childhood was far from happy, often accompanying his parents on military campaigns dressed in miniature versions of the Roman army’s uniform. He lived in a constant atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion and even murder, and a series of personal tragedies had a great effect on his later life. His father died under suspicious circumstances on October 10, ad 19, which caused a major rift between his mother and his grand-uncle, the emperor Tiberius, amid accusations of murder and conspiracy. Because of this Caligula was sent to live with his great-grandmother and Tiberius’ mother, Livia. Following her death, two years later, he was moved once again and this time he went to live with his grandmother, Antonia. During this period of his adolescence, Caligula had little contact with people other than his three sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla and Julia Livilla. It has been suggested that he formed a close relationship with Drusilla and may have even had an incestuous relationship with her.

  After the death of his brother in ad 33, Caligula was next in succession for the position of emperor, along with Gemellus, who was the grandson of Tiberius. At this time, Caligula was living with Tiberius on the island of Capri and it is believed that Tiberius perverted and changed Caligula, who was hardly out of his boyhood.

  Back in Rome, Tiberius’ Praetorian Prefect, Sejanus, was proving to be an exceptionally powerful man. He started to form his own affiliations against Tiberius and his possible successors, in the hope of one day becoming emperor himself. This meant that not only was Tiberius in danger but also Caligula and the rest of his family. Sejanus was a real threat as, in all but name, he had control of Rome as Tiberius was now in semi-retirement.

  Sejanus denounced Caligula’s mother and two of his brothers, Nero and Drusus – his other two brothers, Gaius Julius and Tiberius had died in childhood. Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of Pandataria in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where she starved herself to death. Nero and Drusus were exiled to the island of Ponza, where they both died. Drusus’ body was found locked in a dungeon with the stuffing out of his mattress filling his mouth, which he had eaten to try and stave off the hunger pangs. Nero most likely died due to some violent act, but there is no record of exactly what happened to him.

  Tiberius summoned Caligula and told him about the deaths, which must have had a huge impact on the young man. At the time, Caligula appeared to be indifferent to the deaths of his mother and two brothers, but later in his life he admitted this was a ploy to keep himself alive.

  caligula, the emperor

  In ad 33, Tiberius appointed Caligula as quaestor, which meant he was responsible for the treasury and financial affairs relating to the empire. He held this post until Tiberius’ death in March 37, when Caligula and his cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, became joint heirs of the empire. Caligula was not prepared to share the title and, with the help of the new prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Naevius Sutorius Macro, declared Tiberius’ will null and void on the grounds of insanity, leaving Caligula as the sole emperor.

  Caligula entered Rome on March 28 and was greeted warmly by the crowds, who hailed him as ‘our baby’ and ‘our star’. Caligula has been described as the first truly popular emperor of Rome, who was admired by everyone. The population of the vast empire felt that the new emperor was the beginning of a new age, and Caligula was certainly very different to the previous emperor in the early years of his reign. He gave cash bonuses to members of the Praetorian Guard, declared that treason trials were now a thing of the past and gave amnesty to political prisoners and their families that Tiberius had denounced. Caligula also arranged for his mother’s remains to be sent to Rome so that he could give her a proper burial. He became famous for his lavish spectacles, devising extravagant games for the Romans to enjoy, such as gladiator contests. He revived free elections for the populace and abolished sales tax. Because of his earlier travels with the troops on their campaigns, Caligula had their loyalty and everyone believed that he would take them back to the good times experienced before the reign of Tiberius. On top of this he was a blood relative of Augustus, which meant he was related to the infamous Julius Caesar and the great-grandson of Mark Antony.

  a touch of insanity

  However, despite this auspicious start, Caligula’s short reign was to end in tragedy. It wasn’t long before Caligula started to behave oddly. He not only became an egomaniac but also started showing disrespect to others and, by this behaviour, he quickly alienated himself from those who were once loyal to him. As emperor he was automatically head of the religious office, and his blasphemous actions soon proved to be an embarrassment to the Roman Empire. It soon became obvious that an attempt would be made on Caligula’s life.

  Some people say that Caligula was born insane, while others feel that his i
nsanity was a direct result of a mysterious illness that he developed in October ad 37. Caligula was taken ill just six months after becoming emperor, and although it is unsure of the nature of the sickness, it was possibly a virus that he contracted from all his excesses of drinking, sexual activities and superfluous bathing.

  The empire was overcome with sadness and sympathy when they heard their new emperor had fallen sick. The whole empire rejoiced when he made a full recovery, but this rejoicing was to be short-lived because Caligula emerged from his sickness as a monster of lust and unbelievable cruelty.

  At the beginning of ad 38, Caligula forced Gemellus and his father-in-law, Gaius Silanus, to commit suicide. He accused them both of treason, something that he had earlier abolished. Later the same year he arranged for the murder of the Praetorian Guard, Macro, the man who had helped him become emperor. Caligula became paranoid that Macro was becoming too powerful in his own right and sent him to Egypt on the pretext of becoming a guard. As soon as Macro set foot in the country he was imprisoned and executed.

  One of his first acts of madness was to build a temporary floating bridge using ships as pontoons. This stretched for 3 km (2 miles) from the resort of Baiae to the neighbouring port of Puteoli. It is thought the bridge was meant to be a rival to that built by the Persian King Xerxes, which crossed the Hellespont. After completion, Caligula rode his favourite horse, Incitatus, across the bridge, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. This was an act of defiance, because Tiberius’ soothsayer had predicted that ‘he had no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae’.

  Caligula loved dressing up and wore costumes made from the best silk adorned with precious stones. He was also irresistibly attracted to pretty women and would frequently send for them to be used at his pleasure. He would abuse them and then leave them just like fruit he had tasted and abandoned. It was also reported that Caligula had sexual relationships with men, for example a young and handsome pantomime actor by the name of Mnester.

  Caligula’s favourite sister, Drusilla, and rumoured lover, died in ad 38 and he had her declared a goddess. Craving adolatry himself, Caligula ordered an altar to be built in his honour, and asked for a statue to be brought to the temple in Judaea so that he could be worshipped there as well. The inhabitants of Rome felt that this was going too far, and when he declared that he was going to make his horse, Incitatus, his consul, people started to realise that perhaps their emperor was going ‘mad’.

  Caligula loved to spend money and spared no expense on lavish games, ceremonies and elaborate parades. In fact he was such a spendthrift that by

  ad 39, the imperial treasury was virtually bankrupt. In an attempt to try and refill the imperial coffers, Caligula reintroduced Tiberius’ treason trials so that he could purloin the property and money of his enemies. He also auctioned public property in an effort to produce much needed funds.

  Other activities by Caligula gained even greater attention – for example, his behaviour on the military front. His military activities were nothing short of ludicrous, with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germans and Roman troops ordered to pick up sea-shells as ‘spoils of the sea’ indicative of his triumph over Neptune. Although Caligula considered expanding his empire into the lands of Germany and Britain, as his father had attempted to do, he never went ahead with these plans. At one point he did take his sisters and Drusilla’s widower, Aemilus Lepidus, with him to visit the German provinces. The subsequent events are somewhat shrouded in uncertainty, but it is known that on arrival he had Lepidus and a member of his guard, Gaetulicus, put to death. He also had his sisters’ property confiscated and put them into exile for involvement in an alleged conspiracy.

  Many of Caligula’s actions were seen as paranoia, but as it turned out he had reason to be concerned about his own safety.

  caligula’s demise

  At the age of twenty-nine in the year ad 41, Caligula was assassinated by members of his own Praetorian Guard. They had both personal and political reasons for wanting him dead, and found support among members of the senate. His continuing obsessive and deranged behaviour alarmed members of the senate, and they were in no doubt that the emperor of their enormous empire was nothing more than a dangerous madman. The three main conspirators were Caligula’s own brother-in-law, Marcus Vinicius, Julia Livilla’s husband and a high-ranking senator.

  On January 24, ad 41, Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen, attacked Caligula as he was attending the Palatine Games being held for Augustus. Cassius Chaerea was thought to bear a personal grudge against Caligula because as a young man he had been injured in his genitalia and as a result of this he had a high-pitched voice that sounded effeminate. Caligula constantly mocked Chaerea for this, whenever he was on duty, taunting him with watchwords for that particular day, such as priapus (Latin for erection) or Venus (Roman slang for eunoch). He was the constant butt of Caligula’s jokes and to embarrass him further, Caligula used to extend his hand to be kissed, at the same time making an obscene gesture.

  Chaerea was anxious to carry out the assassination as soon as possible and had to be restrained on more than one occasion. The conspirators decided to carry out their deed during the Palatine Games because there would be plenty of distractions to give them cover. A temporary wooden theatre had been built in front of the imperial residence. It was quite a small area that would soon be packed with thousands of spectators. Caligula’s German bodyguard, who was noted for his strength and brutality, would be hampered by the crowds in coming to his rescue.

  There were many omens of Caligula’s forth­coming death, most notable of which was a dream that Caligula had. In this dream, he was standing next to the throne of Jupiter when God literally kicked him out of heaven.

  On the day of his assassination, a farce was being performed called The Laureolus, in which the main character falls during an escape and dies with blood pouring from his mouth. This was quite apt and, coincidentally, was the same play performed on the day that Philip of Macedon had been assassinated.

  Caligula entered the small theatre in the morning, when it was already full of people. The festivities started with the sacrifice of a flamingo, after which the emperor took his seat and started eating and drinking with his companions. Caligula was in the habit of leaving the games around mid-day, when he would bathe and take lunch before returning for the afternoon’s performance. The conspirators were aware of this routine and planned to attack Caligula as he walked down one of the narrow passageways that led from the theatre into the palace. However, on this particular occasion Caligula showed no signs of wanting to leave. Vinicius panicked and decided to get up and speak to Chaerea about changing their plans. As he rose to leave, Caligula pulled on his toga and asked him where he was going, which meant the senator had no choice but to return to his seat.

  Eventually, Caligula was persuaded to take a break by Asprenas and the imperial party left the theatre with Caligula’s uncle Claudius, Marcus Vinicius and Valerius Asiaticus taking the lead. They held the crowd back, ostensibly to show respect to the emperor, but in reality they were making space for the conspirators to get through. At the last minute Caligula decided to take the shorter route to the baths, which happened to be the only way that had been left unguarded. As he passed down the narrow passageway, Caligula stopped to speak to a small group of performers, giving his conspirators enough time to get in position for the attack.

  The assault started with Chaerea asking Caligula for his watchword of the day. As Caligula gave his usual mocking reply, Chaerea slashed the emperor between his neck and shoulders. Caligula was badly wounded and as he turned in agony to make his escape Sabinus struck him again. Then a crowd of conspirators surrounded Caligula and stabbed him repeatedly, leaving around thirty wounds to various parts of his body. As Caligula dropped to the floor the conspirators jeered and spat in his face.

  Some of Caligula’s personal bodyguards rushed to his aid, but they were too late. Several Praetorians th
en swept through the palace seeking to kill any of his remaining relatives. Caligula’s fourth wife, Caesonia, was stabbed to death, and his baby daughter’s skull was smashed against a wall.

  Caligula’s bodyguards were so enraged that they started to kill people indisciminately. Most of the conspirators had managed to get away, but those who remained were simply killed along with many innocent people. The bodyguards blocked the exits to the theatre while others entered the area bearing the heads of their victims, which they proceeded to place on an altar. The remaining crowd were subdued and uncertain as to what exactly had happened. No one was sure whether Caligula was dead or just wounded, but the situation was diffused when Arruntius Evarestus, an auctioneer by trade, came into the theatre wearing mourning apparel. In a powerful voice, he announced that Caligula had been assassinated.

  As evening fell, Agrippa arranged to have Caligula’s body taken to the Gardens of Lamii, which was an imperial property on the Hill of Esquiline, just outside the city limits. His body was given a quick cremation and buried in a temporary grave.

  Caligula is best remembered, not as a famous emperor, but as a man who had a weird, depraved love of extremes. His name is synonymous with hedonism, insanity and cruelty, which was merely strengthened by his absolute power as emperor of Rome.

  Vlad the Impaler

  Vlad Tepes, better known as Vlad the Impaler, is probably best remembered as being the character on whom Bram Stoker based his character, Dracula. However, the fictional character of Dracula is no­where near as evil as the real-life Vlad the Impaler, who killed for the sheer pleasure of watching his victims writhe in pain. He was a tyrant of the worst possible kind and his story can still send shivers down the spine. He is remembered in history for his cruelty and particularly for his favoured form of torture and execution – impalement – from which he received the nickname Vlad the Impaler.