10 GEMS. A specimen was found in 1780 in the sarcophagus and on the skeleton hand of Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298.
11 PAINTINGS. The Esquiline painting (reproduced, e.g. in Bandinelli, op. cit., supra n. 8, p. 111 and CAH, Plates, iv, 82) shows in three superimposed bands scenes which include a surrender and another in which two generals (Roman and Italian?) are parleying. One is named Q. Fabius, perhaps Q. Fabius Rullianus, consul of 322 or his son. The painting is to be dated to the first half of the third century: Roma Medio-Repubblicana (1973), 200. Another early example is found on the fresco on the façade on the Tomb of the Scipios.
XVIII ROMAN RELIGION
1 ROMAN RELIGION. Four standard works are W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (1911), to which this chapter owes much, and The Roman Festivals (1889); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (1912); K. Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte (1960). See also C. Bailey, Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome (1932); F. Altheim, History of Roman Religion (1938), valuable for the Italian setting of Roman religion, but to be used with caution (so also should G. Radke, Die Götter Altitaliens (1965)); J. Bayet, Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine, edn 2 (1969); H. J. Rose, Primitive Culture in Italy (1926); G. De Sanctis, SR, IV, ii, 1, 121 ff. (1953); H. Wagenvoort, Roman Dynamism (1947). Two excellent introductory volumes are H. J. Rose, Ancient Roman Religion (1949) and R. M. Ogilvie, The Romans and their Gods (1969). For surveys of relatively recent work on Roman religion see A. K. Michels, Cl. Weekly, 1955, 25 ff.; H. J. Rose, JRS, 1960, 161 ff.; R. Schilling, Aufstieg NRW (1972), 1, ii, 317 ff.
2 NUMEN. Quotation: Warde Fowler, Religious Experience of the Roman People, 8. For discussion of numen as equivalent of the idea expressed in the Pacific by mana see H. J. Rose, Ancient Roman Religion (1949), ch. i, and H. Wagenvoort, Roman Dynamism (1947), ch. 3. Numen is not identified with a deity until the Augustan age: F. Pfister, Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. and S. Weinstock, JRS, 1949, 167.
3 LARES. Some scholars maintain that the Lares were the spirits of the dead and the Lar Familiaris the spirit of the family ancestor; if so, this would be evidence of worship of the dead and ancestor worship. But the dead in Roman practice were honoured at their graves, not in the house. Cf. C. Bailey, Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome (1932), 103 ff. and H. J. Rose, OCD, edn 2, s.v.
4 DUMÉZIL. For G. Dumézil’s theory that Rome had three gods (Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus) corresponding with three social classes (priests, warriors and herdsman), see above, p. 451 n. 9.
5 THE IGUVINE TABLETS. See J. W. Poultney, The Bronze Tablets of Iguvium (1959). These tablets, the records of a religious brotherhood, throw a wealth of light on early religious belief and practice. For a brief account of the survival of this ritual in the ‘Elevation of the Ceri’ at modern Gubbio (Iguvium) see R. S. Conway, Ancient Italy and Modern Religion (1932). On the survival of other ancient rites in modern Italy see T. Ashby, Some Italian Scenes and Festivals (1929).
6 DI INDIGETES. The view of Wissowa that di indigetes meant the old indigenous gods and the di novensides the newcomers, has been challenged by F. Altheim (Hist. Rom. Rel., 106 ff.), H. Wagevoort (Roman Dynamism, 83 ff.) and others, but little agreement has been reached about the meaning of these words.
7 THE BACCHANALIA. Livy gives a lively, though highly-coloured, account of the scandal. The so-called senatus consultum de Baccanalibus contains the consuls’ instructions to the allies: Riccobono, Fontes, 240 ff. Cf. M. Gelzer, Hermes, 1936 (= Kleine Schriften, iii (1964), 256 ff.); A. H. McDonald, JRS, 1944, 26 ff.; D. W. L. van Son, Livius’ Behandeling van de Bacchanalia (1960); A. J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy, ii, 387 ff.
8 ORPHISM AND PYTHAGOREANISM. Cf. R. S. Conway, Ancient Italy and Modern Religion ch. ii, ‘Orpheus in Italy’; in general, W. K. C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion, edn 2 (1952). K. von Fritz, Pythagorean Politics in Southern Italy (1940).
9 THE SCIPIONIC CIRCLE AND STOICISM. On the attitude of some members of the so-called ‘scipionic circle’ to the ancestral religion see E. Rawson, JRS, 1973, 161 ff. On Stoicism E. V. Arnold, Roman Stoicism (1900); F. H. Sandbach, The Stoics (1975).
XIX SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES
1 INSCRIPTIONS, LAWS. Republican inscriptions are published in Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. i, edn 2 (1893); A. Degrassi, Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei Publicae 2 vols (1957–63); H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (1892–1916). The number of inscriptions of early Republican times is of course infinitesimal compared with those of the the late Republic and Empire. Roman laws are published by S. Riccobono, Fontes Iuris Romani Ante Iustiniani, i, (1941).
2 FASTI AND CALENDARS. These, respectively, are published in Inscriptiones Italiae, XIII, i (1947) and ii (1963). On the annales and their probable content see J. E. Crake, Cl. Ph., 1940, 375 ff.; P. Fraccaro, JRS, 1957, 60 ff.; J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Cl. Qu., 1953, 162. E. Rawson, however, has argued (Cl. Qu., 1971, 158 ff.) that later writers did not in fact make much use of the Annales Maximi and that their annual publication did not continue after Mucius Scaevola (usque ad P. Mucium: Cicero, de Orat., ii, 12, 52).
3 THE GALLIC DESTRUCTION. See Livy, v, 49, 3; 50, 2; vi, l, 10. T. Frank (Roman Buildings of the Republic (1924), 53, 78, 83) believed in the survival of the Regia; this is denied by L. G. Roberts, Mem. Amer. Acad. in Rome, 1918, 55 ff. The matter is not discussed by F. E. Brown in his report on recent excavations in the Regia (Entretiens Hardt, xiii (1967), 47 ff.); he is concerned with the earliest phases and reports destruction by fire c. 500 BC or earlier. On traces of devastation by the Gallic raid in the city in general see E. Gjerstad, Early Rome, iii (1960), index s.v. Gallic invasion. If the Regia was sacked and all its records destroyed, then the early annales which circulated later must have derived from a priestly reconstruction of the lost earlier material. R. M. Ogilvie’s examination of the early books of Livy, however, has led him to the belief (Livy, 6, n. 1) that ‘a number of tabulae, although not a complete set, survived from the period 509–390 (especially 460–390) and contained much more variegated material than is usually assumed’. On the other hand, E. Rawson (Cl. Qu., 1971, 158 ff.) thinks that in fact later writers did not make much use of the Annales Maximi.
4 THE ECLIPSE. Cicero (de rep., i, 1, 25) says that the first observed (not merely computed) eclipse recorded in the Annales Maximi (and by Ennius) was ‘about 350 years after Rome was founded’. If 350 may be interpreted as 354, the eclipse of 21 June 400 BC would be indicated. This would take the Tabulae back to c. 400, and Cicero seems to suggest that earlier eclipses mentioned in the Annales were based on backward calculations from 400 rather than recorded by contemporary evidence. But even if there was a continuous record only from 400, nevertheless some fifth-century material may have survived, as suggested by R. M. Ogilvie (see n. 3 above) who finds very early material e.g. in Livy on 463 and 431 BC.
K. J. Beloch (Griechische Geschichte, IV, ii, 267) would read CCCC (400) for the figure CCC which a scribe had entered into the defective text of Cicero, but this later date is rejected by J. E. Crake, Cl. Ph., 1940, 379 ff. For Beloch on the Fasti Triumphales see Röm. Gesch., 1 ff.
5 THE HISTORIANS. The standard collections of the fragments of the lost historians are H. Peter, Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, edn 2 (1906–14) and F. Jacoby, Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker (vol. iiic (1958), 845–927 contains the fragments of the Greek historians who dealt with Rome and Italy). Beside the general histories of literature, see valuable surveys of recent work; on the Greek historians by G. T. Griffith and on the Roman historians by A. H. McDonald in Fifty (and Ten) Years of Classical Scholarship, edn 2 (1968). 182 ff., 465 ff., and also McDonald on Republican history, JRS, 1960, 135 ff.
Timaeus. See Jacoby, FGrH, n. 566. Also T. S. Brown, Timaeus of Tauromenium (1958) and A. Momigliano, Terzo Contrib., 23 ff. (especially 44 ff. for Timaeus and Rome).
The Annalists. An important survey is provided by E. Badian in Latin Historians (ed. T. A. Dorey, 1966), ch. i. On the individual annalis
ts see also articles by A. H. McDonald, OCD, edn 2. Cf. M. Gelzer, Kleine Schriften, iii (1964), 51 ff.
Fabius Pictor. See A. Momigliano, Terzo Contributo (1966), 55 ff. and D. Timpe, Aufstieg NRW, I, ii (1974), 928 ff. A Greek inscription from an ancient library in Tauromenium in Sicily has recently been found: see G. Manganaro, Par. Pass., 1974, 389 ff., E. Badian, Liverpool Classical Monthly, i, 7, July 1976, 97 f. and Manganaro in A. Alföldi, Römishche Frühgeschichte (1976), 83 ff. The inscription summarizes Fabius’ work: ‘he investigated the arrival of Heracles in Italy and also (the return ?) of Lanoios (his ally ?) and Aeneas and (?Ascanias). Not(?) much later Romulus and Remus were born, and the foundation of Rome by Romulus, who (?first) ruled.’ Thus it is clear that Fabius did not neglect the foundation stories and Rome’s earliest period; he probably dealt briefly with the early Republic and then expanded as he reached the third century and his own times. For reference to Alföldi’s ideas of Fabius’ unreliability, see above, p. 472.
Cato. On his Origines see W. A. Schröder, M. Porcius Cato. Das erste Buch des Origines (1971); A. E. Astin, Cato the Censor (1978), ch. 10. See also G. Calboli, Cato: Oratio pro Rhodiensibus (Bologna, 1978).
Licinius Macer, Valerius Antias and Aelius Tubero. See Ogilvie, Livy, 7 ff.
Claudius Quadrigarius, See M. Zimmerer, Der Annalist Q. Claudius Quadrigarius (1937).
Livy. See especially P. G. Walsh, Livy (1961); Livy, ed. T. A. Dorey (1971; eight essays); Ogilvie, Livy; J. Briscoe, Commentary on Livy, books xxxi–xxxiii (1973).
Dio Cassius. See F. Millar, Cassius Dio (1964).
Polybius. See F. W. Walbank, A Historical Commentary on Polybius, i (1957), ii (1967), iii (1979); Polybius (Sather Classical Lectures, 1972) and JRS, 1962, 1 ff.; 1963, 1 ff. Cf also K. E. Petzold, Studien zur Methode des Polybios (1969); Polybe, Entretiens Hardt, vol. xx, 1973; D. Musti, ‘Polybios negli studi dell’ultimo ventennio (1950–1970)’, Aufstieg NRW, I, ii, (1974), 1114 ff.
Diodorus. The passages of Diodorus which refer to early Roman history are conveniently printed in A. B. Drachmann, Diodors römische Annalen bis 302 a. Chr. (1912). On Perl’s Kritische Untersuchungen zu Diodors Jahrzählung (1957) see E. S. Staveley, Cl. Rev., 1959, 158 ff.
Plutarch. See R. H. Barrow, Plutarch and his Times (1967), C. P. Jones, Plutarch and Rome (1971), D. A. Russell, Plutarch (1973).
6 CHRONOLOGY. See E. Bickerman, Chronology of the Ancient World (1968); A. E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology (1972). On the date of the foundation of Rome see Walbank, Polybius, i, 665 ff. On the problems of the dislocation of the calendar in the third and second centuries see A. K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Republic (1967); recent discussions include P. Marchetti, Ant. Class., 1973, 473 ff.; P. S. Derow, Phoenix, 1973, 345 ff.; M.-T. Raepsaet-Charlier, Historia, 1974, 288 ff. Eclipse of 190: Livy, xxxvii, 4, 4; of 168: Livy, xliv, 37, 8 (cf. above, p. 514 n. 6); intercalation of 169: Livy, xliii, 11, 13. Acilius: Censorinus, De die nat., xx, 6; Macrobius, Sat. 1, 13, 21.
ADDENDA
The following items appeared too recently to be noted in the appropriate places.
D. and F. R. RIDGWAY, Italy before the Romans (London, 1979), a valuable collection of papers by experts.
W. V. HARRIS, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327–70 BC (Oxford, 1979), argues for a much more aggressive Roman foreign policy than many recent writers.
H. HUMBERT, Municipium et civitas sine suffragio: L’organisation de la conquête jusqu’ à la guerre sociale (Rome, 1978).
C. R. WHITTAKER, ‘Carthaginian Imperialism in the fifth and fourth centuries’, in Imperialism in the Ancient World, ed. P.D.A. Garnsey and C. D. Whittaker (Cambridge, 1978).
R. RILINGER, Der Einfluss des Wahlleiters bei dem römischen Konsulwählen von 366 bis 50 v. Chr. (Munich, 1976). Cf. J. Carter, JRS, 1979, 184 ff.
W. DAHLHEIM, Gewalt und Herrschaft: Das provinziale Herrschafts-system der römischen Republik (Berlin, 1977). Cf. J. Richardson, JRS, 1979, 156 ff.
J. M. FRAYN, Subsistence Farming in Roman Italy (London, 1979).
J. POUCET, ‘Le Latium protohistorique et archeologique’, L’ Ant. Class., 1978, 566 ff., a general survey of recent work.
M. PALLOTTINO, ‘Lo svillupo socio-istituzionale di Roma arcaica’, Studi Romani, 1979, 1 ff. This records, inter alia, the discovery of a fourth Etruscan inscription in Rome. It is inscribed on a small ivory lion, comes from S. Omobono, and is to be dated c. 580 – 60 BC. It runs araz silqetenas spurianas. Thus two names follow the praenomen araz, but Spurianas could be a patronymic or a second name.
F. CASTAGNOLI, Archeologica Laziale, 1 (1978), 13 f., writes about the statues of Minerva, etc., from Lavinium (see above, p. 40).
P. S. DEROW, ‘Polybius, Rome and the East’, JRS, 1979, 1 ff.: Polybius’ view was that from c. 200 BC Rome sought universal obedience to her wishes and skilfully masked offensive designs as defensive wars.
INDEX
Abdera, 251
Aborigines, 42
Abydos, 223
Acarnania, 173, 223, 226, 229, 238
Accius, L., poet, 344
Acerrae, 103, 119
Acerrae, North Italy, 172
Achaean hostages in Italy, 254, 260–1
Achaean League, first contact with Rome, 174; neutrality of, 219–20, 226; supports Rome, 228; and Corinth, 229; and Argos, 229; denounces Nabis, 236; declares war on Antiochus, 238; checked by Rome, 239; quarrels with Sparta, 246–7, 261; supports Rome, 250, 252; quarrels with Rome, 261, 456 n.14; League dissolved, 261
Acilius, C., annalist, 346, 369
Acilius Glabrio, M’. (cos. 191), 239–40, 302, 313, 378
Actors, at Rome, 341, 463 n.4
Adda, river, 171, 172
Adherbal, 157
Adys, 154
Aebura, 270
Aecae, 187, 198
Aedileship, origin of, 78; competence of, 115, 299–300; curule, 108, 115
Aegates Insulae, 156, 159
Aegina, 193
Aelius Paetus, P. (cos. 201), 264, 337
Aelius Paetus, S. (cos. 198), 337, 347
Aelius Tubero, Q., annalist, 370, 466
Aemilia, wife of Scipio Africanus, 328
Aemilian gens, 301
Aemilius Barbula, L. (cos. 281), 127, 129
Aemilius Lepidus, M. (cos. I, 187), 223, 264, 303, 304
Aemilius Papus, L. (cos. 225), 170, 171
Aemilius Paullus, L. (cos. I, 219), 175, 188–9
Aemilius Paullus, L. (cos. I, 182), 252, 254, 260, 265, 269, 303, 327, 347, 367
Aemilius Regillus, L. (praetor, 190), 241
Aeneas, 42–5, 141, 330, 333, 371
Aenus, 248
Aeolian Islands, 11
Aequi, 17, 74, 83, 85–8, 90, 96–7, 99, 123
Aesculapius, 359; temple of, 331
Aesernia, 132, 135
Aetolian League, 219–20; first contact with Rome, 174; peace with Philip, 193, 194, 222; alliance with Rome, 193, 444 n.16; peace with Philip, 193; appeals to Rome, 222, 448 n.4; neutrality of, 227; supports Rome, 227–8; in and after Second Macedonian War, 228, 230–2; supports Antiochus, 235–9; reduced by Rome, 236; accepts terms, 240–1; finally settled, 244, 254
Africa, North, tribes of, 141; Punic Empire in, 142–3, 146; Roman attack on, 154–5; in Second Punic War, 208–14; kingdom of Masinissa, 277–8; Roman province of, 283
Agathocles of Syracuse, 124, 127, 128, 148, 154, 431 n.14
Ager Gallicus, 132, 169
Agriculture, Italian, 10, 14, 26, 36, 75, 93, 223, 307–10, 315, 460 nn.1 & 2; Punic, 145
Agrigentum, garrisoned by Carthaginians, 150; Roman siege of, 151–2; stormed by Carthalo, 156; in Second Punic War, 195–6
Agron of Illyria, 172–3
Ahala, see Servilius
Alalia (Aleria), 31, 143, 153, 402 n.38
Alba Fucens, 123
Alba Longa, 34, 35, 42, 43, 47, 55, 59, 405 n.8
Alban Hills, 13, 14, 33–4, 55, 102, 403 n.43
Alban Lake, 35, 91, 424 n.1
2
Albinus, L., 425 n.17
Aletrium, 123
Alexander Balas, 260
Alexander of Epirus, 100, 119, 126, 127–8
Alexander the Great, 98, 128, 430 n.8
Alexandria, 220–1
Algidus, Mt, battle of, 87–8
Alicante, 176, 177
Allia, battle of, 94, 425 n.16
Allies, 134–5, 449 n.7; in Sicily, 161–2; in Greece, 224
Allifae, 120, 123
Alonis, 177
Alphabet, 20
Alps, 43–5; crossed by Hannibal, 184, 441 n.3; Maritime, 265; Cornic and Julian, 266
Alsium, 158
Ambarvalia, 353, 355
Ambracia, 244, 295
Amburbium, 355, 356
Amici, 224
Amiternum, 125, 200
Amphissa, 241
Anagnia, 85, 92, 123, 134
Ancona, 100, 132–3
Ancus Marcius, 34, 45, 47, 49, 55
Andriscus, pretender to Macedonian throne, 260, 281
Andronicus, see Livius
Anicius (praetor, 168), 252
Anio, river, 200
Annales Maximi, 367, 370
Antigoneia, 228
Antigonus Doson, 174, 220
Antiochus III, the Great, of Syria; eastern anabasis of, 220; alliance with Philip, 221; receives Roman embassy, 222–3; as cause of Second Macedonian War, 225, 450 n.11; attitude to Philip, 230–1; aggression in Asia, 231; crosses to Europe, 232; diplomatic relations with Rome, 233–5; alliance with Egypt, 233; and Hannibal, 234; aims of, 236–7; war against Rome, 237–43; offers terms, 243; accepts terms, 244
Antiochus IV, 252, 258, 259
Antiochus V, 259
Antiochus of Syracuse, 399 n.18
Antipatreia, 227
Antipolis, 265
Antium, 34, 36, 56, 87, 92, 97, 101–3, 122, 133, 316, 333, 403 nn.43 & 44
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