China at War

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China at War Page 50

by Hans van de Ven


  Historians need archives. In Nanjing, Vice-Director Ma Zhendu of the Second Historical Archives of China facilitated my access to these important archives. Historians also need to talk. My colleagues at the History Department of Nanjing University, especially Zhang Xianwen, Chen Qianping and Chen Hongming, have become lifelong friends. Discussions there and in Beijing with Yang Kuisong, Mao Haijian, Bu Ping, Yang Tianshi, Wang Jianlang, Wang Chao-guang and Wang Qisheng proved profitable, at least to me. In Taiwan, the Academia Historica and the archives as well as the library of the Institute of Modern History proved indispensable to my research, as did conversations with historians there, including Chang Jui-te, Ch’en Yungfa, Lü Fang-shan and Lin Man-hung. Dr Lin Hsiao-ting, the Curator of the East Asia Collection at the Hoover Institution Library and Archives, facilitated an extremely profitable two-week stay for me there.

  Many colleagues have read part or even all of the manuscript. They include John Thompson, Timothy Cheek, Richard Frank, Li Chen, Sheila Miyoshi Jager, Beatrice de Graaf, Stephen MacKinnon, Edward Drea, Diana Lary, Yeh Wen-hsin and Susan van de Ven. They have saved me from making many errors.

  Finally, Andrew Franklin of Profile Books proved a perceptive, wise and hugely enthusiastic editor. I thank Rana Mitter for recommending this book to Profile Books and Sally Holloway for smoothing my stylistic awkwardness during the copy-editing stage. Toby Eady, my agent, has always provided wise counsel and found the right people for me to work with. As is the case for all books, it is as much a collective as an individual enterprise. That does not mean, of course, that I am not responsible for any mistakes, of fact or interpretation, that remain.

  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  1. Chi Pang-yuan. Photograph kindly provided by Commonwealth Publishing Group © Commonwealth Publishing Group, Taiwan.

  2. Chen Kewen in his study as a young man. Photograph courtesy of Chen Fongching.

  3. The Sun Yatsen Mausoleum in Nanjing, March 1934. Photo © John Swire and Sons.

  4. Chiang Kaishek and his wife, Song Meiling, return to Nanjing, December 1936. Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive / Alamy.

  5. Wang Jingwei, the Nationalist Number Two, circa 1930. Photo © 2007 C. H. Foo and Y. W. Foo. Fu Bingchang Collection.

  6. The famous Great World Amusement Centre in Shanghai, destroyed by a stray Nationalist bomb, 14 August 1937. Photo: Granger Historical Picture Archive / Alamy.

  7. Refugees waiting to gain access to Shanghai International Settlement during the Battle of Shanghai. Photo © Mei-fei Elrick and Tess Johnston 2012.

  8. Japanese soldiers during the Battle of Shanghai, summer or fall 1937. Photo: Wikipedia.

  9. Yellow River floods near Zhengzhou in June or July 1938. Photo by Robert Capa © International Center Center of Photography / Magnum Photos.

  10. A Presbyterian Mission orphanage in an unoccupied area of Guangdong Province, 1941. Photograph courtesy of The Presbyterian Research Centre (Archives), Dunedin, New Zealand.

  11. The Nanjing Atrocity, December 1937. Photograph by Murase Moriyasu / Wikipedia.

  12. Male Nanjing orphan taken in at Jinling Women’s College, December 1937 or winter 1938. Photograph by Ernest Forster © Ernest and Clarissa Forster, with kind permission of Matt Forster / Yale Divinity Library.

  13. The Japanese advance toward Wuhan, 1938. Photo © Robert Hunt Library / Chronicle / Alamy.

  14. Children being evacuated from Wuhan, summer 1938. Photo: Chronicle / Alamy.

  15. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.

  16. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.

  17. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.

  18. Refugees from the Henan Famine in 1942 or 1943. Photo: Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwauke Digital Collections.

  19. Sha Fei – ‘Flying Sand’ – was a left-wing photojournalist who joined the Communists in Yan’an. Photograph © Sha Fei by permission of Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University.

  20. Communist guerrilla hiding in a crop field. Photograph © Sha Fei by permission of Harvard-Yenching Library of the Harvard College Library, Harvard University.

  21. The aftermath of bombing in Chongqing, November 1941. Photography by Harrison Forman © Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee AGSL Collection.

  22. A street scene in ravaged Chongqing © Robert Hunt Library / Alamy.

  23. Portrait of a militiaman holding a landmine. Photography by Harrison Forman © Harrison Forman Collection, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee AGSL Collection.

  24. Song Meiling, Madame Chiang Kaishek, at the Hollywood Bowl, June 1943. Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy.

  25. General Okamura Yasuji affixes his seal to the surrender document, Nanjing, September 1945. Photo © Bettmann Collection / Getty Images.

  26. The Communist entrance into Beijing, February 1949. Photo: Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy.

  27. Japanese propaganda poster of around 1938 entitled ‘Look. Look. The Cruel Slaughter by the Communist Party’. Photo © IISH / Stefan R. Landsberger Collections (chineseposters.net).

  28. Poster by Xu Ling, circa 1950. ‘The Chinese People Absolutely Cannot Condone Foreign Aggression …’.Photo © IISH / Stefan R. Landsberger Collections (chineseposters.net).

  INDEX

  A

  Abend, Hallett 57, 63, 66, 82–3, 86, 97, 98, 106, 108

  Academia Sinica 51

  Acheson, Dean 265

  agriculture 228; see also grain; rice

  air force 59, 60, 62, 77, 79, 83, 159

  Flying Tigers 169

  Akira Ariyoshi 59

  Alexander, General Harold 190

  Andaman Islands 171

  Anhui 147

  Anqing 104, 110

  anti-war movement 253

  Army Reorganisation Bureau 35

  art exhibitions 41

  Asaka, Prince 96

  ‘At the Songhua River’ (song) 111

  Auden, W. H. 101

  Australia 129, 160, 161, 170, 227, 258, 265, 271

  B

  Bai Chongxi, General 33, 59, 71, 87, 88, 100, 101, 185, 186, 189, 254

  Bailingmiao 60

  Baldwin, James: No Name in the Street 114

  Baoding 71, 78, 104, 209

  Military Academy 21, 53

  baojia system 38, 42

  Barr, David, General 251

  Battle for Beijing (1948–9) 2, 34

  Battle for Nankou (1932) 71

  Battle for Tianjin (1948–9) 2

  Battle of Henan (1942) 182–5

  Battle of Hengyang (1944) 186, 195

  Battle of Jinzhou (1948) 251

  Battle of Liaoning (1948) 244

  Battle of Nomonhan (1939) 127

  Battle of Shanghai (1937) 75–91

  bombing campaign 79, 87; Brussels Conference 82; foreign reporting of 82–4, 86, 87; Operation Iron Fist 80; outcomes 91; public support for 89–91; scorched earth policy 106; significance 89

  Battle of Shenyang see Liaoshen Campaign

  Battle of Siping (1946) 233, 246–7

  Battle of Taierzhuang (1938) 102, 103, 104, 131

  Battle of Xuzhou (1938) 106, 145

  Bauer, Max 35

  Beijing

  Asian and Pacific Peace Conference (1952), 268; battle for (1948–9), 2, 34; ‘black terror’ (1947) 236; Chiang Kaishek’s march into 30; Civil War, 211; Communists’ entry into (1949), Forbidden City 115; Gate of Heavenly Peace, 5, 27, 30; and Japan, 67, 71; KMT political council, 34–5; Marco Polo Bridge incident (1937) 2–3, 57–8, 65–9, 70, 72; military parade (2016) 3; Nationalists and 44; Olympics (2008) 3; population 38; Sun Yatsen’s memorial service 27; UNRRA in 228

  Belden, Jack 1
01

  Bernhardi, General Friedrich von: Germany and the Next War 34

  Bertram, James 140

  Bible 100

  Deuteronomy 5:9 1; Jeremiah’s Lamentations 105; Matthew 26:6–7 57

  Boer War 106

  Bonin islands 266

  Borg, Dorothy 229

  Bose, Subhas Chandra 173

  Boxer Protocol (1901) 65, 70

  Boxer Rebellion (1900) 21

  Braun, Otto 133, 139

  Brecht, Bertolt: ‘To Posterity’ 133

  Britain

  and Battle of Shanghai (1937) 79; and Boer War 106; and Chinese Communists 235; Chinese relations with 40, 41; imperialism 173, 177, 178; and Japanese bombing of China 84–5, 86; Munich Agreement (1938) 116

  Second World War 10, 193; American-British Conversations (ABC) 160; Burma 129, 163–4; treaties 175–6, 265–6; United States military aid 159

  British Commonwealth 160, 265

  British Empire 174, 177

  Brooke, Sir Alan 171

  Buck, John 135

  Buck, Pearl 40, 135

  The Good Earth 42, 100

  Bulwer-Lytton, Victor 39

  Burma 161, 162–6, 168, 171, 178, 191, 195

  Burma Road 129, 158, 167

  Byrnes, James 197

  C

  Canton

  defence of 36; food imports 129; Japanese air raids (1939) 108; Japanese bombing of (1932) 83, 84; Japanese occupation of 104; Nationalists and 34–5, 44, 275–6; protests 24; resistance to Japan 67; Sun Yatsen in 24; Sun Yatsen memorial service 27; UNRRA in 228

  Capa, Robert 101

  Capital Plan 45, 46, 47

  Carton de Wiart, General Adrian 168, 215

  Happy Odyssey 157

  census (1953) 273

  Central Daily News 119, 201–2

  Central Plains Army 255

  Chahar 58, 59, 60

  Chamberlain, Neville 85

  Chang Shu-chi: Messengers of Peace 176

  Chang Yuchun: tomb of 47

  Changchun 233, 248–52

  Changsha 67, 108, 123, 185–6

  Chapei see Zhabei

  Chen Bijun (wife of Wang Jingwei) 132, 225

  Chen Cheng, General 53, 76, 81, 100, 102, 104

  Chen Duxiu 131

  Chen Jiageng (Tan Kah Kee) 103

  Chen Jiongming 24–5

  Chen Jitang, General 33, 59, 119

  Chen Kewen 9, 51–3, 84, 85, 86, 90–1, 93, 99–102, 103, 105, 110, 120, 126, 136, 180, 184, 188, 225, 254, 272, 275–6

  Chen Qimei 22, 23

  Chen Yi, General 210–11, 255

  Chen Yinke 90, 277–8

  The Unofficial History of Liu Rushi 278

  Ch’en Yung-fa 202, 240

  Chengdu 123, 180

  Chennault, General Claire Lee 79, 167–9, 170, 183, 190, 195, 196, 234

  Chi Pang-yuan 9, 51, 53, 55, 56, 84, 93, 110–12, 125–6, 136, 170, 188–90, 215–17, 223–4, 272, 273–5

  Chi Shiying 54, 55, 56, 110, 274

  Chiang Ching-kuo 274

  Chiang Kaishek

  appearance 153; ‘Asia first’ strategy 159; authority of 92, 179, 236; and baojia 38; and Battle of Henan 184, 185; and Battle of Hengyang 186; and Battle of Shanghai 75, 78, 80, 82; and Battle of Taierzhuang 104; and British Empire 177; and Burma 171, 191, 193; and Cairo Conference 176–8, 232; character 153; and Chen Qimei 22, 23; China’s Destiny 179, 180, 200, 201; and Chongqing discussions (1941) 161; and Chongzhen Emperor compared 201; at Cockerel Mountain 105; and Communists 60–1, 88, 144, 146, 209–10, 213–14, 274; and counter-revolution 29–30; and countryside 136; criticism of 67; and defence of Guangxi 189; and ‘Double Ten Agreement’ 214; early life 21; and execution of Han Fuju 100; on foreigners 24; ‘Friend or Enemy?’ article 39–40; and Germany 34, 35, 36; home bombed by Japanese 123; and India 173, 174; and Japan 21–2, 32, 33, 59, 63, 68–9, 71, 72, 85, 120, 157, 177; and Japanese air raids 126; and Japanese surrender 204, 205, 207, 222; as a leader 2, 30–1; and Liaoshen Campaign 250, 251; and Liu Xiang 100; and loyalty 25; and Mao Zedong 212–13, 214–15; and Marco Polo Bridge incident 58; and Marshall Mission 231, 233, 234; and martyrdom 62–3; and May Fourth Movement 24; and military action 26; military training of 21; and Mongolian federation, 60; Moscow visit (1923) 25–6; move to Taiwan 256; and Nanjing 94, 95, 99; at Nanuye conference 112–13; and National Assembly (1946) 235; and Nationalist authority 143; as Nationalist Party Director General 103; and New Fourth Army Incident 148; and Potsdam Declaration 180; radicalisation of 22–3; and reading 22, 23; resignation of 253–4; and San Francisco Peace Treaty 268; and scorched earth policy, 108, 119, 189; and Soviet alliance 40–1; speech to legislators (1948) 275; Stalin’s support of 62; status 4; and Stilwell 164, 165–6, 169–70, 190, 192; and Sun Yatsen 24–6, 50, 221; at Sun Yatsen memorial meeting, Wuhan 99–100; ‘The Limit of Our Endurance’ speech (17 July 1934) 70; and unity 199, 221; vulnerability of 202; and Wang Jingwei 52, 121, 122, 123; and War of the Central Plains (1930) 33; Wedemeyer on 196; and Wei-kuo 25; Whampoa Military Academy command 26; wilderness years 22; and Winter Offensive (1939-40) 128; as a world leader 176; and Xi’an Incident 57, 61–4, 117; at Xi’an military conference (1944) 182; and Yellow river flooding 106–7; and Youth Party 129; and Zhang Zhizhong’s death 131

  Chiang Meiling (Madame Chiang Kaishek) 105, 209

  Chijang 123

  China Democratic League 277

  China Peace Committee 268

  Chinese civilisation 109, 112, 278

  Chinese language 3

  Chinese Military History Museum 107

  Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Agency 227

  Chongqing 6

  discussions (1941) 161; famine 43; Japanese bombing of (1939) 123–4, 125; museums 3; as a Nationalist capital 94, 105, 254, 276; Nationalist-Communist negotiations 213–14

  Chuangshakou 80

  Chungking see Chongqing

  Churchill, Winston 11, 157, 160, 164, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180

  cities 38, 273

  Citizen News 52

  civil servants 188

  civil wars 1, 5

  China 4, 33, 133, 142, 143, 209–15, 244; Russia 25; Spain 82; United States 108

  Clausewitz, Carl von 6, 10, 104

  On War 92, 141, 142, 203, 221, 229–30, 237, 240, 255

  Coble, Parks 89

  Cockerel Mountain 105

  Cold War 11, 230–6, 268–70

  collectivisation 240

  colonies 230

  Communism

  Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) 61–2; containment of 265; rustification of 134–9; United States 190

  Communist Manifesto, The 22

  Communist Party (CCP)

  Chiang Kaishek and 63–4; constitution 179; discipline 5, 7; expansion of 198; founding of 2; and Japanese surrender 209; Mao’s purges of 138; and National Assembly 235; and Nationalist Party 137; policies 142; Rectification Campaign 149–54; rural policy 136–7, 243; and Xi’an Incident 62, 63

  Communists

  allegiance to 9; arming of 191, 192; bases 145, 146; and Battle of Shanghai 88; Campaign to Suppress Counter Revolutionaries 269; and Chiang Kaishek 60–1, 209–10; Chongqing discussions (1945) 213–14; and civil wars 4; and expansion 46, 145, 147, 149; France 232; and global revolution 115; and guerrilla warfare 7, 237, 245; and history 278; and Ichigo offensive 8, 198–202; Japan 264; and Japanese surrender 209, 213; and Korean War 259, 260, 261; land revolution 240–3; and Liaoshen Campaign 248–52; Malaysia 269; and Manchuria 232, 239; and Nationalists 103, 144, 233, 234–5, 237–8, 253–4; and New Fourth Army Incident 147–9; and new order 271–2; and revolt 31, 33; Second World War 5, 7; Soviet Union’s support for 233; Stalin and 61; triumph of 2; United Front 25, 28, 60, 88, 101, 137, 143, 144, 145, 148, 149, 151, 199; United States 190; and White Terror 135; Winter Offensive (1939-40) 128, 130; Yan’an base 58, 60

  Confucianism 180, 185, 202, 264

  Confucius: Analects 131

  cooperative societies 42
/>   corruption 136

  counter-revolution 269

  Cripps, Stafford 173

  Cultural Revolution 46, 272, 277

  currency 38, 183, 226, 253

  Currie, Laughlin 158

  D

  Dagongbao (‘L’Impartial’) (newspaper) 89

  Dai Jitao 23, 25, 53

  Dalian (Dairen) 212

  dams 38, 264

  Davies, John Paton 211

  Demchugdongrub, Prince 58–9, 60, 115

  demilitarised zone 121

  DeMille, Cecil B. 83

  democracy 152; see also elections

  Deng Tuo 276

  History of Famine Relief in China 135

  Deng Xiaoping 2, 180, 255, 269

  Deng Yingchao 103

  Dewey, Thomas 193

  Dikötter, Frank 38

  Doihara Kenji, Colonel 32

  Donald, William 62

  Doolittle, Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier General) James 162

  Dorn Frank 196–7

  Drea, Edward 181–2

  drought 42

  Drum, General Hugh 164

  Du Fu 216

  Facing Snow 203

  Dulles, John Foster 265, 266

  Durdin, Tillman 96, 97

  E

  East China Field Army 255

  economy 38, 116, 183, 229, 269

  Eden, Anthony 85–6, 176

  education 3, 37–8, 54, 56; see also schools; universities

  Eighth Route Army 144, 145–6, 198, 199

  elections 142; see also democracy

 

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