5 Center for Domestic Preparedness, Anniston, Alabama: See www.cdptraining.com.
CHAPTER ONE: THE CHEMISTRY OF WAR
9 Early battles of World War I: Tuchman, The Guns of August, p. 438.
9 Trench warfare in World War I: Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory, p. 40.
9–10 Proposed chlorine shell in American Civil War: Jeffrey K. Smart, “History Notes: Chemical & Biological Warfare Research & Development During the Civil War,” CBIAC Newsletter, vol. 5, no. 2 (Spring 2004), pp. 3, 11.
10 Constraints on the use of poisons in antiquity: John Ellis van Courtland Moon, “Controlling Chemical and Biological Weapons Through World War II,” in R. D. Burns, ed., Encyclopedia of Arms Control and Disarmament, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993), pp. 567–574.
10 Pledge during the Middle Ages: Tony Freemantle, “Toxic Warfare Bloomed on a Belgian Field,” Washington Times, January 5, 1998.
10 Lieber code of conduct in the Civil War: Friedman, The Law of War, pp. 158–186.
10 1874 Brussels Declaration: Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, “Fact Sheet 1: The Chemical Weapons Convention and the OPCW—How They Came About,” p. 1, www.opcw.org/docs/fs1.pdf.
11 Hague gas projectile declaration: Richard M. Price, “A Genealogy of the Chemical Weapons Taboo,” International Organization, vol. 49 (Winter 1995), p. 83.
11 Use of irritant gases in 1914: Jeffrey K. Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective,” in Sidell, Takafuji, and Franz, eds., Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, p. 14.
11 Fritz Haber: “Fritz Haber: Chemist and Patriot,” www.woodrow.org/teachers/ chemistry/institutes/1992/Haber.htm.
12 Shortage of artillery shells; von Falkenhayn: Price, The Chemical Weapons Taboo, pp. 47–51.
12 Haber conversation with Otto Hahn: Hahn, Mein Leben, p. 117.
13 General von Deimling quote: Berthold von Deimling, Aus der alten in die neue Zeit (Berlin, 1930), p. 201, cited in Brauch and Müller, Chemische Kriegführung— Chemische Abrüstung, p. 84.
13 Shipment and emplacement of steel cylinders: Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare,” p. 14.
14 Chlorine attack at Ypres: Captain Edward F. Fitzgerald, “Gas!,” Armed Forces Chemical Journal, vol. 14, no. 6 (November–December 1960), p. 16; Haber, The Poisonous Cloud, p. 34; Harris and Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing, pp. 2–6.
15 Anthony Hossack diary entry: Firstworldwar.com, “Memoirs & Diaries: The First Gas Attack,” www.firstworldwar.com/diaries/firstgasattack.htm.
15–16 Casualties from chlorine attack: Ulrich Trumpener, “The Road to Ypres: The Beginnings of Gas Warfare in World War I,” Journal of Modern History, vol. 47, no. 3 (1975), pp. 460–480.
16 Suicide of Clara Haber: Dan Charles, “The Tragedy of Fritz Haber,” National Public Radio, July 11, 2002.
17 British use of chlorine gas at Loos: Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare,” p. 14.
17 Development of chemical defenses: Ibid., pp. 15–16.
17 “Dulcet et Decorum Est”: Owen, Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen, p. 55.
18 American Expeditionary Force: Charles E. Heller, “Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917–1918,” Leavenworth Papers, no. 10 (Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: Combat Studies Institute, 1984), p. 17.
18 Amos Fries: “Amos Alfred Fries, Brigadier General, United States Army,” Arlington National Cemetery Web site, www.arlingtoncemetery.net/aafries.htm.
18 Haber introduction of mustard: Terry M. Weekly, “Proliferation of Chemical Warfare: Challenge to Traditional Restraints,” Parameters, vol. 19 (December 1988), pp. 52–53.
19 Effects of mustard agent: David Zeman, “Duty, Honor, Betrayal: How U.S. Turned Its Back on Poisoned WWII Vets,” Detroit Free Press, November 10, 2004.
19 Gunpowder Reservation: Chemical Weapons Working Group, “Background Info on CW Stockpile Site in Aberdeen, Maryland,” available online at www.cwwg.org/maryland.htm.
19–20 Hitler injured by mustard: Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, pp. 24–25.
20 Major combatants used 124,000 tons of 39 di ferent agents: Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, “Fact Sheet 1,” www.opcw.org/docs/fs1.pdf.
20 Impact of chemical warfare on American troops: Peter Grier, “US Was One of History’s First Victims of Gas Warfare,” Christian Science Monitor, December 14, 1988, p. B4; Rothschild, Tomorrow’s Weapons, p. 3.
20 Fries quote: Fries and West, Chemical Warfare, pp. 435–439.
21 Treaty of Versailles, Washington Disarmament Conference: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements, p. 10.
21 1925 Geneva Protocol: Bernauer, The Chemistry of Regime Formation, p. 18; Charles C. Floweree, “The Politics of Arms Control Treaties: A Case Study,” Columbia Journal of International A fairs, vol. 37 (1984), p. 271; Jean Pascal Zanders, “The CWC in the Context of the 1925 Geneva Debates,” The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 3, no. 3 (1996), pp. 38–45.
22 German-Soviet collaboration at Tomka: Brauch and Müller, eds., Chemische Kriegführung—Chemische Abrüstung, pp. 32–38.
23 Haber’s exile and death: “Fritz Haber: Chemist and Patriot.”
CHAPTER TWO: IG FARBEN
24 IG Farben: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G., FrankfurtMain,” File No. XXX-19, Item No. 30, CIOS Target No. 8/59a, August 20, 1945 [NARA, RG 319]; L. Wilson Greene, “Military Government Control of the German Chemical Industry,” Chemical Corps Journal, October 1947, pp. 42–45.
25 Gerhard Schrader biography: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 356; Pfingsten, Dr. Gerhard Schrader, pp. 6–19.
26–28 Schrader invention of Tabun (Le-100): BIOS, “The Development of New Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Agents, by Gerhard Schrader” (Secret), Final Report no. 714, item no. 8, undated [NARA, RG 319]; Gerhard Schrader, “Nervengas” (letter), Der Spiegel, no. 13, March 23, 1970, pp. 18, 21.
29 Dr. Gross’s assessment of toxicity: BIOS, “The Development of New Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Agents,” pp. 25–27.
29 Italian use of mustard in Abyssinian War: Aram Mattioli, “Entgrenzte Kriegsgewalt: Der italienische Giftgaseinsatz in Abessinien 1935–1936,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, heft 3 (Juli 2003), pp. 311–227.
30 Organization of Army Ordnance Office: CIOS, “War Gas Production and Miscellaneous Chemical Warfare Information, Anorgana G.m.b.H., Germany” (Secret), file no. XXVII-34, item no. 8, July 25, 1945, Appendix 2, “Organization of the Heereswaffenamt and Montan Industriewerke G.m.b.H” [NARA, RG 319].
30 Visit by Sicherer and Wirth to Elberfeld: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 327.
30 Army Gas Protection Laboratory: Gebhard Schultz, “Militärisches Sperrgebiet: Die Zitadelle Spandau im Nationalsozialismus,” Berlinische Monatsschrift, vol. 7, no. 2 (2001), pp. 51–59.
31 Visit by Schrader to Spandau Citadel, May 1937: BIOS, “The Development of New Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Agents,” p. 27; Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 327.
31 Systematic search for new war gases: Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun)” (Secret), January 24, 1946, p. 3 [FOIA].
32 IG Farben welcomed the Army’s decision to take charge: Ibid.
32 Screening process for new war gases: Gellermann, Der Krieg, der nicht stattfand, pp. 80–81.
32 Raubkammer Chemical Weapons Testing Site: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare Installations in the Munsterlager Area, Including Raubkammer,” Report no. XXXI-86, item no. 8, compiled April 23–June 3, 1945 [NARA, RG 319]; Major General Alden H. Waitt, “Why Germany Didn’t Try Gas,” Saturday Evening Post, vol. 218, no. 36 (March 9, 1946), pp. 137–138.
34 Ochsner memo (October 27, 1937): Hermann Ochsner, “Stellungnahme von Oberstleutenant Ochsner zu einer Anfrage der 8. (technischen) Abteilung des Generals
tabs des Heeres über neuzeitliche Kampfstoffe und Kampfstoffverwendung, vom 27. Oktober 1937,” Dokument 35, in Brauch and Müller, eds., Chemische Kriegführung—Chemische Abrüstung, pp. 148–152.
35 Schrader not allowed to accept Army contract: BIOS, “Examination of Various German Scientists” (Secret), Final Report no. 44, item no. 8, BIOS Trip no. 1103, Target no. C8/134, 1945 [SPRU].
35 Karl Krauch report: Köhler, Und heute die ganze Welt, pp. 277–278; Rolf-Dieter Müller, “World Power Status Through the Use of Poison Gas? German Preparations for Chemical Warfare, 1919–1945,” in Diest, ed., The German Military in the Age of Total War, pp. 186–187.
36 Vz Tower: Gellermann, Der Krieg, der nicht stattfand, p. 78.
36 Field trials with Tabun at Raubkammer: BIOS, “Interrogation of German Air Ministry (OKL) Technical Personnel, Luftwaffe Lager, near Kiel” (Secret), Final Report no. 9, item no. 28, compiled between July 17 and August 2, 1945 [SPRU]; Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun)” (Secret), January 24, 1946, pp. 11–14.
36 Injuries during Tabun development work: Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun)” (Secret), January 24, 1946, p. 19 [FOIA].
37 Atropine and scopolamine: “Atropine,” “Scopolamine,” The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) [online].
37–38 Development of Sarin: BIOS, “The Development of New Insecticides and Chemical Warfare Agents,” pp. 40–42; BIOS, “Examination of Various German Scientists,” Final Report no. 44, item no. 8, BIOS Trip no. 1103, Target no. C8/134, September 1945 [NARA, RG 319], “Vertragsnotiz des Heerenwaffenamtes für Hitler betreffend Trilon 46 vom 2. Dezember 1941,” Dokument 44, in Brauch and Müller, eds., Chemische Kriegführung—Chemische Abrüstung, pp. 174–175.
38 Tabun pilot plant “Vorwerk Heidkrug”: Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun)” (Secret), January 24, 1946, p. 17 [FOIA].
38 Ochsner memo (June 28, 1939): Hermann Ochsner, “Denkschrift von Oberst Ochsner ‘Grundsätzliche Gedanken über den Einsatz von Kampfstoffen im Krieg’ für die 1. Abteilung des Generalstabs des Heeres vom 28. Juli 1939,” Dokument 39, in Brauch and Müller, eds., Chemische Kriegführung—Chemische Abrüstung, pp. 162–165.
38 General von Brauchitsch’s decision to procure Tabun: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 185.
39 Meeting of Army and IG Farben officials: Ibid., pp. 185–186.
39 Otto Ambros biography: Heine, Verstand & Schicksal, p. 172–173; Anonymous, “Zum Tode eines Giftgasenthusiasten,” Pfalz-Forum, no. 3 (October–December 1999), pp. 25–29.
40 Founding of Anorgana: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, pp. 186–187.
40 Origin of the name “Sarin”: BIOS, “Examination of Various German Scientists” (Secret), Final Report no. 44, item no. 8, BIOS Trip no. 1103, Target no. C8/134 [SPRU].
40 Schrader’s criticism of Sarin pilot plant development: British Foreign Office, “Gerhardt [sic] Schrader,” August 30, 1945 [PRO, FO 1031/105].
41 Schrader’s suspicions about human experimentation: BIOS, “Interrogation of German CW Medical Personnel” (Secret), Final Report no. 138, item no. 8, August–September 1945 [SPRU].
41 German conquest of France: Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, p. 738.
41 Churchill speech: Sir Winston Churchill, “Their Finest Hour,” speech to the House of Commons, June 18, 1940.
CHAPTER THREE: PERVERTED SCIENCE
42 Founding of Luranil: Bernd Appler, “The Production of Chemical Warfare Agents by the Third Reich, 1933–45,” in Stock and Lohs, The Challenge of Old Chemical Munitions and Toxic Armament Wastes, pp. 77–102.
42 Construction of Dyhernfurth plant: Ibid., pp. 78–103; CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G., Frankfurt-Main,” file no. XXX-19, item no. 30, 1945 [NARA, RG 319]; “ ‘Die Pest ist denkbar unzuverlässig’: Die B + C Rüstung des Dritten Reiches,” Der Spiegel, no. 52 (December 22, 1969), pp. 98–99.
42 Meeting of IG Farben sta f in Ludwigshafen in August 1941: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G.,” p. 8.
44 Creation of the Speer ministry: Simon, German Research in World War II, pp. 81, 87.
44 Special Committee C: FIAT, “Report on Chemical Warfare Based on the Interrogation and Written Reports of Jürgen E. von Klenck, Also Comments by Speer and Dr. E. Mohrhardt” (Secret), December 6, 1945, pp. 19–20.
44 German memorandum on Trilon 83: Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, Military Attaché Report, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun),” (Secret), A.11000, January 24, 1946, p. 22 [original German document dated February 14, 1942] [FOIA].
44–45 Zyklon B: “Zyklon B,” Jewish Virtual Library, www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust.Zyklon.htm (accessed January 30, 2004); Richard J. Green, “The Chemistry of Auschwitz,” www.holocaust-history.org/auschwitz/chemistry (accessed January 30, 2004).
45–46 Start of Tabun production at Dyhernfurth: BIOS, “Interrogation of German CW Personnel at Heidelberg and Frankfurt” (Secret), Final Report no. 41, item no. 8, undated [SPRU].
46–47 Tabun manufacturing process: Military Intelligence Division, Great Britain, Military Attaché Report, “Translation of a Top Secret German Document Dealing with the Sequence of Development of the German Agent Trilon 83 (Tabun)”; CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G.,” file no. XXX-19, pp. 13–14; Capitaine Collomp, “Une arme secrète allemande: Les Trilons,” Forces Aériennes Françaises, no. 37, October 1949, pp. 68–69.
47 Two forms of Tabun: Ibid., p. 76.
48 High-fat diet: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G.,” p. 9.
48 Fatal accidents at Dyhernfurth: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare Installations in the Munsterlager Area” (Secret), file no. XXXI-86, item no. 8, compiled April 23–June 3, 1945 [SPRU].
48–49 Security measures at Dyhernfurth: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie A.G., Frankfurt/Main,” file no. XXX-19, item no. 30, August 20, 1945 [NARA, RG 319], pp. 2–3.
49 Cover names for German nerve agents: Capitaine Collomp, “Une arme secrète allemande: Les Trilons,” Forces Aériennes Françaises, no. 37, October 1949, pp. 65–82; Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, pp. 184–185.
49 U.S. intelligence report of July 1942: Lieutenant Colonel Ralph W. Hufford, Intelligence Division, Chemical Warfare Service, Message to C Intel Div, July 9, 1942, Subject: “New German Poison Gas” [FOIA].
50 Tabun filling line at Dyhernfurth: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, pp. 284–285.
50 Initial Tabun production at Dyhernfurth: CIOS, “War Gas Production and Miscellaneous Chemical Warfare Information, Anorgana GmbH, Germany” (Secret), Report no. XXVII-34, item no. 8, July 25, 1945 [NARA, RG 319]; SHAEF, Office of Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, “Poison Gas: Abstract from Notes on Interrogations at Frankfurt, 21 April–4 May 1945” (Top Secret) [PRO, FO 1031/86]; Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 238.
50–51 Work camp at Dyhernfurth: Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 284.
51 Human experimentation: Ibid., p. 286.
51–52 Richard Kuhn: Nobel e-Museum, “Richard Kuhn—Biography,” available online at www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1938/kuhn-bio.htm; Goudsmit, ALSOS, p. 80
52 Dale and Loewi discoveries: “The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936,” www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1936/press.htm.
53–54 Pharmacological effects of nerve agents: Dheraj Khurana and S. Prabhakar, “Organophosphorus Intoxication,” Archives of Neurology, vol. 57 (April 2000), pp. 600–602.
54 Industrial manufacture of Sarin: CIOS, “Chemical Warfare: I.G. Farbenindustrie, A.G.,” file no. XXX-19, p
p. 23–24.
54–55 Sarin plant at Falkenhagen (Seewerk): FIAT, “Report on Chemical Warfare Based on the Interrogation and Written Reports of Jürgen E. von Klenck, Also Comments by Speer and Dr. E. Mohrhardt” (Secret), December 6, 1945, pp. 7–8 [SPRU]; Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, p. 328.
55 German army officer captured in Tunisia: CSDIC, “Report of German Chemical Weapons Research Based on Interview with an Unidentified Prisoner of War,” March 7, 1943 [PRO WO 193.723 47353].
55–56 Battle of Stalingrad: Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, pp. 914–919, 925–932.
56 Hitler’s eastern headquarters at Wolf ’s Lair: Ibid., p. 849.
56–58 Meeting on May 15, 1943 at Wolf’s Lair: Otto Ambros, “Auszug aus der Denkschrift von Otto Ambros über die Lage auf dem Kampfstoffgebiet vom 20. März 1944,” Dokument 49, in Brauch and Müller, eds., Chemische Kriegführung—Chemische Abrüstung, pp. 182–184; Groehler, Der lautlose Tod, pp. 252–256; Richard Halloran, “Gas Developed by Nazis, Who Weighed Using It,” New York Times, August 19, 1970, p. 6.
58 Arbusov and the Kazan school of organophosphorus chemistry: Academician B. A. Arbuzov, “The Chemistry of Organophosphorus Compounds and Their Application,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR (Moscow), no. 3 (1960), pp. 103–105, translated in CIA, Scientific Intelligence Digest, OSI-SD/61-26 (Secret), December 26, 1961 [NARA]; A. N. Pudovik and I. M. Aladzheva, “Chemistry of Organophosphorus Compounds in the Kazan School of Organophosphorus Chemists,” Uspekhi Khimii (Advances in Chemistry, Moscow), vol. 36, no. 9 (1967), pp. 1499–1532, translated in U.S. Department of Commerce, Joint Publications Research Service, JPRS 44,591, March 6, 1968 [SPRU]; Joint Chiefs of Staff, Intelligence Group, Report to the Joint Intelligence Committee, “Intelligence on Soviet Capabilities for Chemical and Bacteriological Warfare,” JIC 156/12, January 27, 1949.
58–59 Saunders research on DFP at University of Cambridge: Saunders, Some Aspects of the Chemistry and Toxic Action of Organic Compounds Containing Phosphorus and Fluorine, pp. 42–86.
War of Nerves Page 46