197 Recycling of Sarin from M34 bomblets: Ibid.
198 Open-pit burning of M55 rockets at Dugway: Ibid.
199 Operation CHASE 5: E. J. Hogendoorn, “A Chemical Weapons Atlas,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 53, no. 5 (September–October 1997); Jeffrey K. Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective,” in Sidell, Takafuji, and Franz, eds., Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, pp. 62–63.
199 Project 112 field trials: U.S. General Accounting Office, “Chemical and Biological Defense: DOD Needs to Continue to Collect and Provide Information on Tests and Potentially Exposed Personnel,” Report to the Senate and House Committees on Armed Services, GAO-04-410, May 2004.
199–200 Project SHAD trials: Thom Shanker and William J. Broad, “Sailors Sprayed with Nerve Gas in Cold War Test, Pentagon Says,” New York Times, May 24, 2001, p. A1; U.S. Department of Defense, “DOD Expands SHAD Investigation,” News Release No. 355-02, July 9, 2002; U.S. Department of Defense, “Briefing on Cold War–Era Chemical and Biological Warfare Tests, Presenter: Dr. William Winkenwerder, Jr.,” News Transcript, October 9, 2002; Thom Shanker, “U.S. Troops Were Subjected to Wider Toxic Testing,” New York Times, October 9, 2002, p. A18; Thom Shanker, “Defense Dept. Offers Details of Toxic Tests Done in Secret,” New York Times, October 10, 2002, p. A32.
200 Trials on Hawaii: Thom Shanker, “U.S. Tested a Nerve Gas in Hawaii,” New York Times, November 1, 2002, p. A18.
200 Trials at Army Tropic Test Center in Panama: Fellowship of Reconciliation, Test Tube Republic: Chemical Weapons Tests in Panama and U.S. Responsibility (San Francisco, July 31, 1998), pp. 5, 6, 13.
200 Fort Greely Military Reservation, Alaska: Korey Capozza, “Northern Exposure,” The Nation, August 18–25, 2003, p. 32.
200 Trials at Gerstle River Test Site: Deborah Funk, “Were They Exposed to Dangerous Toxins?,” Army Times, July 8, 2002.
201 Blueberry Lake incident: Michael Getler, “Nerve Gas Lost 3 Years,” Washington Post, January 6, 1971, pp. A1, A8; Reuters, “Deadly Gas Lay Unnoticed for 2 Years in Lake,” Baltimore Sun, January 7, 1971, p. A6; Alaska Community Action on Toxics, “Critical Cleanup Target: Gerstle River Test Site,” online at www.akaction.net/pages/critical/gerstle.htm.
202 Mysterious death of fifty-three caribou: Brauch, Der chemische Alptraum, p. 146.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: INCIDENT AT SKULL VALLEY
203 Description of Dugway Proving Ground: Jerry Steelman, “Dugway Proving Ground—A Unique Test Facility,” CML (Army Chemical Review), July 1990, pp. 35–38.
203 Warning sign at entrance: Hersh, Chemical and Biological Warfare, p. 137.
203–04 Description of life at Dugway: Author’s interviews with William C. Dee and Garrett Cochran.
204 Description of test grids: Steelman, “Dugway Proving Ground,” pp. 36–38.
204 Principle underlying safety of testing: Hersh, Chemical and Biological Warfare, p. 139.
204 Calls from Dugway officials to sheri f of Tooele County: Philip M. Boffey, “Nerve Gas: Dugway Accident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill,” Science, vol. 162, no. 3861 (December 27, 1968), p. 1463.
204 A million pounds of nerve agent had been released: Scott Simon, “Evidence of Radiation and Chemical Testing Disclosed,” National Public Radio, Weekend Edition, May 27, 1995, transcript no. 1125-12.
204–06 VX trial on March 13, 1968: Virginia Brodine, Peter P. Gaspar, and Albert J. Pallmann, “The Wind from Dugway,” Environment Magazine, vol. 2 (January–February 1969), reprinted as Appendix 2 in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Hearing, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, 91st Congress, 1st session, May 20–21, 1969 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 209–219; Boffey, “Nerve Gas: Dugway Accident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill,” p. 1461.
206 Sheep acted “crazy in the head”: Boffey, “Nerve Gas: Dugway Accident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill,” p. 1461.
207 Sheep deaths at White Rock in Skull Valley: Department of Defense, Office of Public Affairs, “Status Report on Investigation of Sheep Deaths in Utah,” April 18, 1968.
207 Visit to Skull Valley by USDA experts: Kent R. Van Kampen, et al., “Organic Phosphate Poisoning of Sheep in Skull Valley, Utah,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, vol. 154, no. 6, March 15, 1969, pp. 623–630.
207 Appointment of Dr. Osguthorpe to investigate outbreak: Statement of D. A. Osguthorpe (D.V.M.), Veterinarian, in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, p. 63.
208 A fected flocks fell within a triangular area: David J. Sencer, M.D., Director, CDC, “Investigation of Sheep Deaths—Skull Valley, Utah,” Communicable Disease Center, Atlanta, Ga., April 29, 1968, Appendix 7, in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, p. 247.
208 Visits by Osguthorpe to Dugway and a fected flocks: Statement of D. A. Osguthorpe (D.V.M.), in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, pp. 63–64.
208 Army technical report provided to Senator Moss: Responses to questions by Dr. Osguthorpe, in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, p. 94.
209 Governor Rampton called meeting at the Utah State Capitol: Ibid., p. 93.
210 CDC epidemiological study: Boffey, “Nerve Gas: Dugway Incident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill,” p. 1462.
210 Study by USDA Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory: Ibid.
211 CDC comparison analysis of sample of VX: Ibid., p. 1463.
211 Sheep turned out to be unusually susceptible: Ibid., p. 1462.
211–12 Advisory Committee report: Department of the Army, Report of the Interagency Ad Hoc Advisory Committee for Review of Testing Safety at Dugway Proving Ground, Washington, D.C., November 1968, Appendix 1 in U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals, pp. 187–208.
212 Financial compensation of ranchers: Boffey, “Nerve Gas: Dugway Incident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill,” p. 1464.
212 Enduring legacy of distrust: Benjamin C. Garrett, “Leading a Horse to Water: Investigation of Alleged CW Use, Dugway Proving Ground (USA), July 1976,” Presentation at Pugwash Meeting no. 254, 13th Workshop of the Pugwash Study Group on the Implementation of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions, Oegstgeest, The Netherlands, April 8–9, 2000, p. 3.
212 First Tuesday broadcast and McCarthy quote: McCarthy, The Ultimate Folly, p. 126.
213 Army briefing for House members: Ibid., pp. 127–128.
213 Hearings by House subcommittee: U.S. House, Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources, Hearing, Environmental Dangers of Open-Air Testing of Lethal Chemicals.
214 Disclosure of open-air tests at Fort McClellan and Edgewood: Marjorie Hunter, “Nerve Gas Tested at Open-Air Sites,” New York Times, July 12, 1969, pp. 1, 8; Steve Vogel, “Military Reveals Testing of Nerve Agents in Md.,” Washington Post, October 10, 2002, p. A2; Frank D. Roylance, Ariel Sabar, and Tom Bowmann, “Nerve Agents Released in Md. During Open-Air Tests in ’60s,” Baltimore Sun, October 10, 2002.
214–15 Accident involving Sarin bombs on Okinawa: Robert Kentley, “Nerve Gas Accident: Okinawa Mishap Bares Overseas Deployment of Chemical Weapons,” Wall Street Journal, July 18, 1969, p. 1; Neil Sheehan, “U.S. Said to Keep Nerve Gas Abroad at Major Bases,” New York Times, July 19, 1969, pp. 1, 2; Kensei Yoshida, “Some Okinawans Knew of U.S. Chemical Activities,” New York Times, July 19, 1969, p. 2.
215 Response to Wall Street Journ
al story: Takashi Oka, “Protest Is Strong in Japan, Okinawa,” New York Times, July 19, 1969, p. 2; Takashi Oka, “Okinawa Report on Gas Provides Windfall for Opposition in Japan,” New York Times, July 20, 1969, p. 4; Neil Sheehan, “U.S. Will Remove Nerve-Gas Arms at Okinawa Base,” New York Times, July 23, 1969, pp. 1, 4.
215 James Reston quote: McCarthy, The Ultimate Folly, p. 141.
215–16 Quote by Japanese official: Ibid., p. 130.
216 Congress passed Public Law 91-121: Jeffrey K. Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective,” in Sidell, Takafuji, and Franz, eds., Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, p. 63.
216–17 Nixon decision of November 25, 1969: James M. Naughton, “Nixon Renounces Germ Weapons, Orders Destruction of Stocks; Restricts Use of Chemical Arms,” New York Times, November 26, 1969, p. 1.
217 Controversy over proposed CHASE mission: “Statement of Congressman Richard D. McCarthy on Chemical and Biological Warfare Policies and Practices” (press release), April 21, 1969; McCarthy, The Ultimate Folly, pp. 103–108.
218 Testimony by Eckhaus and Bass: Author’s interview with Sigmund R. Eckhaus.
218 National Academy of Sciences recommendation: Joel Primack and Frank von Hippel, “Matthew Meselson and Federal Policy on Chemical and Biological Warfare,” in Primack, Advice and Dissent, pp. 143–164.
218–20 Operation CHASE 10: Richard D. Lyons, “Army Will Transport Nerve Gas Across South for Disposal in Sea,” New York Times, July 30, 1970, pp. 1, 11; Richard D. Lyons, “Nerve Gas Trains Will Cross 7 States,” New York Times, July 31, 1970, p. 41; Associated Press, “Army to Stockpile Nerve Gas Antidote,” New York Times, August 1, 1970, p. 26; Associated Press, “Nerve Gas Is Sunk off Florida Coast,” New York Times, August 19, 1970, p. 1, 6.
220–21 Removal of U.S. chemical weapons from Okinawa (Operation Red Hat): Anonymous, “U.S. to Remove Gas from Okinawa Soon,” New York Times, December 5, 1970, p. 9; Reuters, “Transfer of War Gas Completed,” New York Times, September 22, 1971, p. 12.
222 Conditions on Johnston Island: Owen Wilkes, “Chemical Weapon Burnoff in Central Pacific,” Peacelink, vol. 83 (July 1990), pp. 5–10.
CHAPTER TWELVE: NEW FEARS
224 Army plans to eliminate Chemical Corps: “Army Chemical Corps to Be Phased Out,” Chemical & Engineering News, January 22, 1973, p. 3.
224 Chemical Corps motives to acquire binary weapons: Gordon M. Burck, “Decision-Making in the United States Nerve Gas Weapon Program,” unpublished paper, 1985.
224 Increasing share of Chemical Corps R&D budget devoted to binaries: Julian Perry Robinson, The United States Binary Nerve-Gas Programme: National and International Implications (Falmer, U.K.: University of Sussex ISIO Monographs, First Series, no. 10, 1975), pp. 4, 10.
224–25 Use of DF in binary Sarin artillery shell: Lois Ember, “Binary Chemical Arms Study Fires House Debate,” Chemical and Engineering News, May 7, 1984, p. 24.
225–26 Correction of instability problem with binary artillery shell: Author’s interview with William C. Dee.
226 Binary artillery shell entered engineering development: SIPRI, CB Weapons Today, p. 308.
226 One test involved live Sarin: U.S. General Accounting Office, Report to the Congress by the Comptroller General of the United States, U.S. Lethal Chemical Munitions Policy: Issues Facing the Congress (Secret/NOFORN), 1990.
226 Callaway announcement of binary program: John Finney, “Army Will Spend $200 Million for Safer Nerve Gas,” New York Times, December 10, 1973.
226–27 Egyptian chemical warfare preparations: William Beecher, “Egypt Deploying Nerve Gas Weapons,” Boston Globe, June 6, 1976, p. 1.
227 Egypt transferred chemical arsenal to Syria for $6 million: Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” Nonproliferation Review, vol. 5, no. 3 (Spring–Summer 1998), p. 49.
227 Israeli military intelligence lulled into complacency: Malcolm Gladwell, “Connecting the Dots,” New Yorker, March 10, 2003, p. 83.
227 Description of Yom Kippur War: Jewish Virtual Library, “The 1973 War,” www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/1973toc.htm.
227 Israeli discovery of Arab armored vehicles with chemical protection: Jeffrey K. Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective,” in Sidell, Takafuji, and Franz, eds., Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, pp. 64–65.
228 Egyptian prisoners of war admitted under interrogation: Beecher, “Egypt Deploying Nerve Gas Weapons.”
228 Israel ordered manufacture of 3 million gas masks: Ibid.
228–29 CIA estimates of Soviet chemical troops and vehicles: David Binder, “U.S. Re-Emphasizing Chemical Warfare,” New York Times, June 5, 1978, pp. A1, A6.
229 Testimony of General Creighton W. Abrams: General Creighton W. Abrams, Army Chief of Staff, Testimony before the House Defense Appropriations Subcommittee, March 5, 1974.
229 Comment by Representative Robert Sikes: Ibid.
229–30 Egyptian TAB nerve-agent antidote kit, CIA Project Grand Plot: Jack Anderson, “Flawed Antidote for Nerve Gas Pushed by CIA,” Washington Post, October 4, 1984, p. 11.
230 V-agent production at Novocheboksarsk: Derek Averre, “Chemical Weapons in Russia: After the CWC,” European Security, vol. 8, no. 4 (Winter 1999), pp. 130–164.
231 Fire at Novocheboksarsk on April 28, 1974: Ibid.
231 Soviet “Foliant” program: Bill Gertz, “Russia Dodges Chemical Arms Ban,” Washington Times, February 4, 1997.
231 “Series F” code name: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov. According to Mirzayanov, the USSR Council of Ministers approved several top secret research programs on various aspects of chemical and biological warfare, all having code names beginning with the letter F. In addition to Foliant, these programs reportedly included Flora (military herbicides), Flute (toxin weapons for assassination), Fouette, Fagot, Flask, Ferment (genetically engineered pathogens), and Factor.
231–32 Description of GosNIIOKhT: Wise, Cassidy’s Run, p. 63.
232 Sta f and branches of GosNIIOKhT: Vil S. Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex: An Insider’s View,” in Amy E. Smithson, ed., Chemical Weapons Disarmament in Russia: Problems and Prospects (Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, Report no. 17, October 1995), p. 22, footnote 4. See also Amy E. Smithson, Toxic Archipelago: Preventing Proliferation from the Former Soviet Chemical and Biological Weapons Complexes (Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, Report No. 32, December 1999), p. 11.
232 Development of A-230, A-232: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
233 A-232 was a phosphate: Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex: An Insider’s View,” pp. 24–25.
233 Martinov visit to GITOS: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
233–34 Testing of Foliant agents at Shikhany: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
234 Trials of nerve agents at Camp de Mourmelon: Author’s interview with Olivier Lepick.
234 Extension of French use of B2-Namous: Mayer, L’arme chimique, pp. 159–160.
235 Nixon summit meeting with Brezhnev: Washington Post, Superpower Summits, 1959–1995, “Joint Communiqué, Moscow, July 3, 1974,” available online at www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/summit/archive/archive.htm.
235 Senate ratification of Geneva Protocol: ACDA, Arms Control and Disarmament Agreements, pp. 13–14.
235–36 Chemical disarmament negotiations in Geneva: Deborah Shapley, “Chemical Warfare: Binary Plan, Geneva Talks on a Collision Course,” Science, vol. 184, no. 4143 (June 21, 1974), pp. 1267–1269; “Hearings Probe U.S. Chemical Warfare Stance,” Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 52, no. 21 (May 27, 1974), pp. 10–11; “House Stirs Up Chemical Warfare Issue,” Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 52, no. 33 (August 19, 1974), pp. 16, 19–20.
236 Army decision not to abolish Chemical Corps: Smart, “History of Chemical and Biological Warfare,” p. 65.
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236 Countries of chemical weapons proliferation concern: Rear Admiral Thomas A. Brooks, Director of Naval Intelligence, Statement on Intelligence Issues before the Seapower, Strategic, and Critical Materials Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee, March 7, 1991; “Navy Report Asserts Many Nations Seek or Have Poison Gas,” New York Times, March 10, 1991, p. 10; R. Jeffrey Smith, “Confusing Data on Chemical Capability,” Washington Post, March 10, 1991, p. A21; E. J. Hogendoorn, “A Chemical Weapons Atlas,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 53, no. 5 (September–October 1997); Colonel Richard Price, “Yugoslav Chemical Warfare Capability, Mostar’s History of Chemical Weapon Research, Development, Production: What, When, Where, How Much?,” The ASA Newsletter, no. 71 (February 1999); Human Rights Watch, Clouds of War: Chemical Weapons in the Former Yugoslavia, vol. 9, no. 5 (D) (March 1997).
236–37 Origins of Iraqi chemical weapons program: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues: Iraq’s Proscribed Weapons Programmes” (Working Document), March 6, 2003, p. 139.
237 Al-Hazen Institute: Ibid.
237 Saddam Hussein’s rise to power: Baram, Building Toward Crisis, p. 2.
237 Arab Projects and Development: Efraim Karsh, “Rational Ruthlessness: NonConventional and Missile Warfare in the Iran-Iraq War,” in Karsh, Navias, and Sabin, eds., Non-Conventional Weapons Proliferation in the Middle East, pp. 32–33.
237–38 Iraqi negotiations with Pfaudler: Timmerman, The Death Lobby, pp. 36–38.
238 ICI officials were suspicious of Iraqi request: U.S. Department of State, cable from U.S. Information Service, London, to SecState, Washington D.C., “Observer Article Describes Iraqi Chemical Weapons Factory” (Unclassified), March 15, 1984.
238 Iraqis turned to the Italian company Montedison: Timmerman, The Death Lobby, p. 49.
238 Plant built by Klöckner Industrie: Ibid., p. 233.
238 U.S.-Soviet chemical weapons talks resumed: Will Lepkowski, “Chemical Warfare: One of the Dilemmas of the Arms Race,” Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 56, no. 1 (January 2, 1978), pp. 16–21.
239 M687 Sarin artillery shell ready for production: Department of the Army, Headquarters, United States Army Armament Command, “Record of Decision/ Action on Type Classification of Projectile, 155mm, Lethal Binary, GB2, XM687” (Confidential), January 7, 1977 [FOIA].
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