305 U.S. Air Force used combination of munitions: Atkinson, Crusade, p. 89.
305–06 Czech chemical detachment detected nerve agent: U.S. Department of Defense, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, News Briefing, “Czechoslovakian Chemical Report,” November 10, 1993, p. 2; Philip Shenon, “Czechs Say They Warned U.S. of Chemical Weapons in Gulf,” New York Times, October 19, 1996.
306 General Schwarzkopf quote: Schwarzkopf, It Doesn’t Take a Hero, p. 509.
306 FOX vehicle: “The Fox Vehicle,” www.gulflink.osd.mil/camp_mont2/tabe.htm.
307 Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP): GulfLink, “Summary Paper on MOPP Procedures,” available online at www.gulflink.osd.mil/mopp/mopp_s01.htm.
308 Israeli chemical defense preparations during Gulf War: Ariel Levite, “Israel Intensifying Preparations to Counter Chemical Attack,” Armed Forces Journal International, May 1990, p. 60; Joel Brinkley, “Israelis’ Fear of a Poison Gas Attack Is Growing,” New York Times, August 24, 1990, p. A8; Cole, The Eleventh Plague, pp. 103–121.
308 Isaac Stern rehearsal with Israel Philharmonic: Cole, The Eleventh Plague, p. 114.
309 Israeli casualties from misuse of gas masks and atropine: E. Karsenty, J. Shemer, I. Alshech, et al., “Medical Aspects of the Iraqi Missile Attacks on Israel,” Israeli Journal of Medical Science, vol. 27 (1991), pp. 603–607.
309 Reasons for Iraqi nonuse of chemical weapons: W. Andrew Terrill, “Chemical Warfare and ‘Desert Storm’: The Disaster That Never Came,” Small Wars and Insurgencies, vol. 4, no. 2 (Autumn 1993), pp. 263–279.
309 To saturate a square kilometer of territory with Sarin: Atkinson, Crusade, p. 87.
309 Demolition of bunkers at Khamisiyah: Philip Shenon, “Study Sharply Raises Estimate of Troops Exposed,” New York Times, July 24, 1997, p. A18.
310 U.N. Security Council Resolution 687: Amin Saikal, “The Coercive Disarmament of Iraq,” in Wright, Biological Warfare and Disarmament, p. 267.
310 Iraq initially declared 10,000 chemical munitions: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
311 Bush policy decisions: Federation of American Scientists, “Chemical Weapons Convention Chronology.”
311–12 Manley meeting with Graham Pearson: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
312 Manley meeting in New York with Barrass and Gee: Ibid.
312 UNSCOM Destruction Advisory Panel: Ibid.
312 UNSCOM Chemical Destruction Group (CDG): Ibid.; Amin Saikal, “The Coercive Disarmament of Iraq,” in Wright, ed., Biological Warfare and Disarmament, p. 273.
313–14 Explosive destruction of 122 mm rockets: Author interview with Ron Manley.
314 Total number of Iraqi chemical weapons destroyed: UNMOVIC, “Unresolved Disarmament Issues,” p. 148.
314 Iraq’s unilateral destruction of chemical weapons: Ibid.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: WHISTLE-BLOWER
315 Award of Lenin Prize to Petrunin, Kuntsevich, and Yevstavyev (April 1991): Vil S. Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex: An Insider’s View,” in Amy E. Smithson, ed., Chemical Weapons Disarmament in Russia: Problems and Prospects (Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, Report no. 17, October 1995), p. 24.
315 Article by Mirzayanov in Kuranty: Ibid., p. 26.
316 Article by Mirzayanov and Fedorov: Oleg Vishnyakov, “Binary Bomb Exploded” [interview with Vil Mirzayanov and Lev Fedorov], Novoye Vremya, no. 44 (October 1992), pp. 4–9 (translated in FBIS, JPRS-TAC-92-033, November 14, 1992, pp. 44–49); Igor Ryabov, “ ‘Chemical War’ Against an Invisible Enemy,” Novoye Vremya, no. 5 (February 1994), pp. 4–6 (translated in FBIS, JPRS-TAC-94-008-L, July 27, 1994).
316 Mirzayanov interview with Englund: Will Englund, “Chemical Weapons Shadow Moscow,” Baltimore Sun, March 19, 1992, p. 14A; Will Englund, “Ex-Soviet Scientist Says Gorbachev’s Regime Created New Nerve Gas in ’91,” Baltimore Sun, September 15, 1992, p. 3A; Will Englund, “Russia Still Doing Secret Work on Chemical Arms,” Baltimore Sun, October 18, 1992, p. 1A.
316–17 FSB arrest and imprisonment of Mirzayanov: Fred Hiatt, “Russia Jails Scientist over State Secrets,” Washington Post, October 27, 1992, pp. A21, A27; Serge Schmemann, “K.G.B.’s Successor Charges Scientist,” New York Times, November 1, 1992, p. 4.
317 Martinov vowed that Mirzayanov would be convicted: Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex,” p. 27.
318 Endgame phase of CWC negotiations: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, “Fact Sheet: Chemical Weapons Negotiations at the Conference on Disarmament,” August 13, 1992; Hassan Mashhadi, “How the Negotiations Ended,” Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, no. 17 (September 1992), pp. 1, 28–30.
318 Development of Australian “model treaty” and chairman’s text: Bernauer, Chemistry of Regime Formation, p. 29.
319 CWC opened for signature in Paris: Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger, “Remarks upon Signing the Chemical Weapons Convention, Paris, France, January 13, 1993,” U.S. Department of State Dispatch, vol. 4, no. 3 (January 18, 1993), p. 26.
320 Uglev article in Novoye Vremya: Oleg Vishnyakov, “Interview with a Noose Around the Neck” [interview with Vladimir Uglev], Novoye Vremya, No. 6, February 4, 1993, pp. 40–41 (translated in FBIS, JPRS-TAC-93-007, April 13, 1993, pp. 39–42).
320–21 Russian government crackdown on journalists: Will Englund, “2 Russian Papers Investigated After New Disclosures on Chemical Arms,” Baltimore Sun, June 11, 1993, p. 21A.
321 Drozd development of Novichok-7: Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex: An Insider’s View,” p. 28.
321 Protests by scientific and human rights organizations: Frank von Hippel, “Russian Whistleblower Faces Jail,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 49, no. 2 (March 1993) pp. 7–8; Gale Colby, “Fabricating Guilt,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 49, no. 8 (October 1993), pp. 12–13; Gale Colby and Irene Goldman, “When Will Russia Abandon Its Secret Chemical Weapons Program?,” Demokratizatsiya (Winter 1993–94), pp. 148–154.
321 Mirzayanov trial: Sonni Efron, “Russian Scientist Faces Trial for Chemical-Arms Report,” Los Angeles Times, January 5, 1994, p. A6; Fred Hiatt, “Russian Court Opens Unprecedented Secrets Trial,” Washington Post, January 25, 1994, p. A1.
321 Mirzayanov case dismissed for lack of evidence: Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons Complex,” p. 28.
322 Mirzayanov received award at 1995 AAAS annual meeting: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award, 1995, http://archives.aaas.org/people.php?p_id=318.
322 Mirzayanov underwent CIA polygraph test: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
322 Letter from Union of Khimprom Workers: “News Chronology: 4 February 1995,” Chemical Weapons Convention Bulletin, no. 28 (June 1995), p. 13.
322 Behind-the-scenes discussions between U.S. and Russia: Elisa D. Harris, “Outlawing Chemical and Biological Weapons,” presentation at the Paul C. Warnke Conference on the Past, Present and Future of Arms Control, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., January 28, 2004.
323 Russian noncompliance with Wyoming MOU: Vladimir Gusar, “Third-Generation Chemical Weapons Are Being Produced and Tested as Before,” VEK, no. 12, March 26–April 1, 1993, p. 2 (translated in FBIS, JPRS-TAC-93-007, April 13, 1993, p. 43); Will Englund, “Russia Still Doing Secret Work on Chemical Arms,” Baltimore Sun, October 18, 1992, p. 1A.
323 Kirpichev working at secret institute in Shikhany: Author’s interview with Vil S. Mirzayanov.
324 General Kuntsevich indictment and firing: Mirzayanov, “Dismantling the Soviet/ Russian Chemical Weapons Complex,” p. 28.
324 Chemical Destruction Group finished its work: Author’s interview with Ron Manley.
325 Phenomenon of “secondary” proliferation: Carl W. Ford, Jr., Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research, Testimony before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Hea
ring, Reducing the Threat of Chemical and Biological Weapons, March 19, 2002, p. 11.
325 Statement by Mamdouh Ateya: Reuters, “Arabs ‘Need Chemical Weapons,’ ” The Independent, July 28, 1988, p. 8.
325–26 Robinson quote: “Middle East Chemical Weapons,” Mednews: Middle East Defense News, vol. 2, no. 3 (October 24, 1988), p. 3.
326 Yin He incident of August 1933: Rone Tempest, “China Demands U.S. Apology; Search of Ship Fails to Find Warfare Chemicals,” Chicago Sun-Times, September 6, 1993, p. 10; “Statement by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China on the “Yin He” Incident, September 4, 1993, available online at www.nti.org/db/china/engdocs/ynhe0993.htm.
326–28 Chizuo Matsumoto, origins of Aum Shinrikyo cult: David E. Kaplan, “Aum Shinrikyo (1995),” in Tucker, Toxic Terror, p. 297; Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 8–11.
328 Compound in Kamikuishiki: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, p. 21.
328 Tokyo government recognized Aum as a religious organization: “Matsumoto’s Aum Cult Grew Rapidly in Late 80s,” The Daily Yomiuri (English-language Web site of Yomiuri Shimbun), February 16, 2004, transcribed in FBIS, document no. JPP20040216000107.
328–29 Aum pursued a variety of moneymaking operations: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 21–22.
329 “Seidaishi” and “Seigoshi”: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 61), Shukan Yomiuri, March 28, 1999, pp. 46–47, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990717000186.
329 Aum practitioners wore battery-powered caps: Miwa Suzuki, “Children Take Charge of Japan’s Lethal Doomsday Cult,” Agence France Presse, August 12, 1999.
329 Apocalyptic ideology of Aum Shinrikyo: Ian Reader, “Spectres and Shadows: Aum Shinrikyo and the Road to Megiddo,” Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 14, no. 1 (2002), pp. 147–186.
329 Asahara moved the date of doomsday: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 35), Shukan Yomiuri, September 20, 1998, pp. 122–123, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990517000505.
329 Asahara developed religious concepts to rationalize murder: Kensaku Tokiu, “Aum Officer Warns of Revival,” Shukan Gendai, April 17, 1999, pp. 234–236, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990507001911.
330 Aum candidates ran for Parliament in 1990 election: Anthony T. Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” Archives of Toxicology, Kinetics and Xenobiotic Metabolism, vol. 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1999), p. 46.
330 Aum organized itself into twenty-two “ministries”: Ibid., p. 47.
330 Biographies of cult leaders: “Police Versus Aum—Officials of Cult Being Arrested One After the Other,” Sande Mainichi, April 30, 1995, pp. 28–33, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19950430000039.
330 Construction of factory to produce AK-47 rifles: Kaplan, “Aum Shinrikyo (1995),” in Tucker, ed., Toxic Terror, p. 212.
331 Failed effort to produce biological weapons: William J. Broad, “How Japan Germ Terror Alerted World,” New York Times, May 26, 1998, pp. A1, A10.
331 Aum ties with Oleg Lobov: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, p. 72.
331 Asahara trip to Moscow: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 39), Shukan Yomiuri, October 18, 1998, pp. 118–119, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990515000045.
332 Lobov provided access to Soviet expertise: Author’s interview with Alexander Pikayev.
332 Masami Tsuchiya, selection of Sarin: Brackett, Holy Terror, p. 114.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: THE TOKYO SUBWAY
333 Construction of Sarin plant in Satian 7: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 41), Shukan Yomiuri, November 1, 1998, pp. 46–47, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19950515001098.
333 Description of interior of Satian 7: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 119–120.
333 Equipment ordered through front companies: Japan, National Police Agency, Police White Paper 1996 (Tokyo: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance, August 30, 1996), unofficial translation by Robert Mauksch, Monterey Institute of International Studies.
335 Bar containing wine for senior cult leaders: Shoko Egawa: “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 42), Shukan Yomiuri, November 1, 1998, pp. 46–47, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990515001098.
335 Initial production of Sarin intermediates, foul odors: Anthony T. Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” Archives of Toxicology, Kinetics and Xenobiotic Metabolism, vol. 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1999), p. 51.
335 Aum purchase of Russian military helicopter: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, p. 193.
335 Attempted assassination of Ikeda: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 54), Shukan Yomiuri, February 7, 1999, pp. 46–47, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990701000162.
335–36 Sarin trials at sheep station in Australia: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 126–134.
336 Aum plan for Matsumoto attack: Japan, National Police Agency, Police White Paper 1996.
336–38 Description of Matsumoto attack: “Matsumoto: A Dry Run for Tokyo,” in U.S. Senate, Committee on Government Affairs, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Staff Statement, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Case Study on the Aum Shinrikyo, October 31, 1995; Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 137–141; A. Oppenheimer, “Aum Shinrikyo: Lessons to be Learnt,” Jane’s Terrorism & Security Monitor, March 1, 2004.
338 Kono telephoned Matsumoto Emergency Services: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 142–145.
338 Casualties of Matsumoto attack: “Five Long Years Have Passed, Yet Fear of Another Matsumoto Sarin Incident Is Not Fading,” Mainichi Shimbun, June 27, 1999, p. 25, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990824000226; Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 142–146.
338 Police found dead animals under grove of trees: Y. Seto, et al., “Toxicological Analysis of Victims’ Blood and Crime Scene Evidence Samples in the Sarin Gas Attack Caused by the Aum Shinrikyo Cult,” in Tu and Gaffield, eds., Natural and Selected Synthetic Toxins, p. 319.
338–39 Police pressured Mr. Kono for confession: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, p. 145.
339 “Song of Sarin”: Brackett, Holy Terror, p. 119; Staff Statement, Global Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Case Study on the Aum Shinrikyo, October 31, 1995, pp. 60–61.
340 Asahara set Sarin production target of seventy tons: Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” p. 55.
340 Technical problems with Sarin plant: Shoko Egawa: “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 42), Shukan Yomiuri, November 1, 1998, pp. 46–47, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990515001098.
340 Leakage of DMMP from Satian 7: Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” p. 52.
340 Failed attempt to recruit Russian scientists: Kyle B. Olson, “Aum Shinrikyo: Once and Future Threat?,” Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, no. 4 (July–August 1999), pp. 513–516.
340 Decision to shut down Sarin plant: Brackett, Holy Terror, p. 117.
341 Tsuchiya synthesis of VX, use for assassinations: Monterey Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “Chronology of Aum Shinrikyo’s CBW Activities,” 2001.
341 Yomiuri Shimbun article: Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” p. 52.
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341 Remodeling of Satian 7: Brackett, Holy Terror, pp. 117–118; Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 215–216.
342 Nakagawa secretly buried supply of DF: Tu, “Anatomy of Aum Shinrikyo’s Organization and Terrorist Attacks with Chemical and Biological Weapons,” p. 55.
342 Press visit to Satian 7, attorney’s allegations: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 216–217.
342 Two army sergeants tipped off the cult: Brackett, Holy Terror, p. 124.
342 Crisis meeting of Aum leaders: Tatshuhito Ida, “Subway Sarin Attack Case: No Progress Seen in the ‘Matsumoto Trial,’ ” Yomiuri Shimbun, April 6, 1999, p. 25, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990517000879.
342 Five million passengers ride Tokyo subway daily: Robyn Pangi, “Consequence Management in the 1995 Sarin Attacks on the Japanese Subway System,” BCSIA Discussion Paper 2002–4, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, February 2002, p. 8.
343 Doubt in Asahara seen to reflect shallowness of faith: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 49), Shukan Yomiuri, October 25, 1998, pp. 118–119, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS1999-154001879.
343–44 Synthesis of Sarin by Endo and Nakagawa: Anthony T. Tu, “Overview of Sarin Terrorist Attacks in Japan,” in Tu and Gaffield, eds., Natural and Selected Synthetic Toxins, p. 306.
344 Acetonitrile added to jump-start evaporation of Sarin: Kyle B. Olson, “Overview: Recent Incidents and Responder Implications,” in U.S. Public Health Service, Proceedings of the Seminar on Responding to the Consequences of Chemical and Biological Terrorism, p. 2-40.
344 Final preparations for Tokyo subway attack: Brackett, Holy Terror, pp. 126–130; Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, pp. 242–243.
345 Hirose thoughts during Sarin attack: Shoko Egawa, “From the Other Witness Stand: Following the Aum Case” (serialized article no. 33), Shukan Yomiuri, September 6, 1998, pp. 48–49, translated in FBIS, document no. FTS19990516000861.
345 Cultists burned clothes and threw umbrellas in water: Kaplan and Marshall, The Cult at the End of the World, p. 251.
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