sell about 25 percent more insurance: On optimism and sales, see Martin E. P. Seligman and Peter Schulman, “Explanatory Style as a Predictor of Productivity and Quitting Among Life Insurance Sales Agents,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 832–38. Shulman, “Explanatory Style.” See also Peter Schulman, “Applying Learned Optimism to Increase Sales Productivity,” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 19 (1999): 31–37.
swim in his or her best event: Martin E. P. Seligman, “Explanatory Style as a Mechanism of Disappointing Athletic Performance,” Psychological Science 1 (1990): 143–46.
“I will just carry on”: Lacey, interview.
could be the target of therapy: Aaron T. Beck, A. John Rush, Brian F. Shaw, and Gary Emery, Cognitive Therapy of Depression (New York: Guilford Press, 1979). Also note that, in the same era, Albert Ellis developed a similar approach. So Beck and Ellis are jointly recognized as pioneers in what is now commonly referred to as cognitive behavioral therapy.
longer-lasting in its effects: Robert J. DeRubeis et al., “Cognitive Therapy vs Medications in the Treatment of Moderate to Severe Depression,” Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005): 409–16. Steven D. Hollon et al., “Prevention of Relapse Following Cognitive Therapy vs Medications in Moderate to Severe Depression,” Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005): 417–22. Some patients struggle with the aspect of CBT that involves trying to talk themselves out of their negative self-talk. These patients say things like: “In my head, I know it’s not fair to call myself a loser. I’m labeling myself, I’m engaging in all-or-nothing thinking. But in my heart, part of me still feels like a loser—like I’ll never be good enough.” A new form of CBT, acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), addresses these concerns. In ACT, the goal is simply to notice any negative self-talk and accept that it exists, while not letting it control your actions.
“Relentless pursuit”: Information on Teach For America’s mission and history can be found at www.teachforamerica.org.
optimistic teachers were grittier: Claire Robertson-Kraft and Angela L. Duckworth, “True Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-term Goals Predicts Effectiveness and Retention Among Novice Teachers,” Teachers College Record (1970) 116 (2014): 1–24.
one of Carol’s first studies: Carol S. Dweck, “The Role of Expectations and Attributions in the Alleviation of Learned Helplessness,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 (1975): 674–85.
assess a person’s theory of intelligence: This measure was developed by Carol Dweck, Sheri Levy, Valanne MacGyvers, C.Y. Chiu, and Ying-yi Hong. For interested readers, I highly recommend Carol Dweck, Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (New York: Ballantine Books, 2008).
positive social relationships: See Carol S. Dweck, “Mindsets and Human Nature: Promoting Change in the Middle East, the Schoolyard, the Racial Divide, and Willpower,” American Psychologist (2012): 614–22.
persist through college: Brian Galla et al., “Intellective, Motivational, and Self-Regulatory Determinants of High School Grades, SAT Scores, and College Persistence” (manuscript under review, 2015).
KIPP Schools: For more information on KIPP, see www.kipp.org.
Promotes Growth Mindset and Grit: This thesaurus was originally developed by psychologist David Yeager, whom I thank for this age-general revision. On generic statements, see Daeun Park et al., “How Do Generic Statements Impact Performance? Evidence for Entity Beliefs,” Developmental Science (in press, 2015). And finally, on the importance of a “genuine” growth mindset, see Carol S. Dweck, “Carol Dweck Revisits the ‘Growth Mindset’ ” Education Week, September 22, 2015.
“never failed to imitate them”: James Baldwin, Nobody Knows My Name (New York: Vintage Books, 1993), 61–62.
inadvertently inculcated a fixed mindset: Daeun Park et al., “Young Children’s Motivational Frameworks and Math Achievement: Relation to Teacher-Reported Instructional Practices, but Not Teacher Theory of Intelligence,” Journal of Educational Psychology (in press, 2015).
parents react to mistakes: Kyla Haimovitz and Carol S. Dweck, “What Predicts Children’s Fixed and Growth Mindsets? Not Their Parent’s Views of Intelligence But Their Parents’ Views of Failure” (manuscript under review, 2015).
apply in a corporate setting: Harvard Business Review Staff, “How Companies Can Profit from a ‘Growth Mindset’ ” Harvard Business Review, November 2014.
“tracked senior leaders”: Bill McNabb, CEO of Vanguard, in an interview with the author, August 20, 2015.
“makes me stronger”: Friedrich Nietzsche, The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols: and Other Writings, ed. Aaron Ridley, trans. Judith Norman (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 157.
croon the same words: Kanye West, “Stronger,” Graduation, 2007. Kelly Clarkson sings a popularized version of the phrase, “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger,” in “Stronger (What Doesn’t Kill You),” Stronger, 2011.
more confident: In fact, the idea that suffering can make us more capable is timeless. Every major religious tradition includes a parable where suffering is necessary for enlightenment. The Latin root of the word passion is pati, which means “to suffer.” OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2015.
“tenacity in pursuit”: For more information on Outward Bound, see www.outwardbound.org.
benefits tend to increase: John A. Hattie, Herbert W. Marsh, James T. Neill, and Garry E. Richards, “Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting Difference,” Review of Educational Psychology 67 (1997): 43–87.
were much more vulnerable: Maier and Seligman, “Learned Helplessness.”
Steve Maier and his students: Kenneth H. Kubala et al., “Short- and Long-Term Consequences of Stressor Controllability in Adolescent Rats,” Behavioural Brain Research 234 (2012): 278–84.
“respond to stress”: Steven F. Maier, professor of psychology and director of the Center for Neuroscience at the University of Colorado at Boulder, in an interview with the author, April 2, 2015.
Milton Hershey School: Not coincidentally, Milton Hershey himself exemplified grit, having started several unsuccessful companies before developing, through trial and error, a formula for milk chocolate that would soon make his company the largest confectionary in the world. He and his wife could not have children and therefore created the Hershey School, which owns a controlling interest in Hershey stock. For more information on the Milton Hershey School and its founder, visit www.mhskids.org.
always learning and growing: If you want to hear Kayvon’s music, visit www.kayvonmusic.com.
increased their IQ scores: Sue Ramsden et al., “Verbal and Non-Verbal Intelligence Changes in the Teenage Brain,” Nature 479 (2011): 113–16.
ability to grow myelin: Carol S. Dweck, “The Secret to Raising Smart Kids,” Scientific American 23 (2015). Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck, “Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and in Intervention,” Child Development 78 (2007): 246–63. Joshua Aronson, Carrie B. Fried and Catherine Good, “Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 38 (2002): 113–25. David Paunesku et al., “Mind-Set Interventions Are a Scalable Treatment for Academic Underachievement,” Psychological Science (2015): 1–10. Allyson P. Mackey, Kirstie J. Whitaker, and Silvia A. Bunge, “Experience-Dependent Plasticity in White Matter Microstructure: Reasoning Training Alters Structural Connectivity,” Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 6 (2012): 1–9. Robert J. Zatorre, R. Douglas Fields, and Heidi Johansen-Berg, “Plasticity in Gray and White: Neuroimaging Changes in Brain Structure During Learning,” Nature Neuroscience 15 (2012): 528–36.
“resilience training”: The Penn Resilience Program was developed by Jane Gillham, Karen Reivich, and Lisa Jaycox. This school-based program teaches cognitive-behavioral and social-emotional skills to
students using role plays, games, and interactive activities. See J. E. Gillham, K. J. Reivich, L.H. Jaycox, and M. E. P. Seligman, “Preventing Depressive Symptoms in Schoolchildren: Two Year Follow-up,” Psychological Science 6 (1995): 343–51. Martin E. P. Seligman, Peter Schulman, Robert J. DeRubeis, and Steven D. Hollon, “The Prevention of Depression and Anxiety,” Prevention and Treatment 2 (1999). Note that a more recent meta-analytic review confirmed benefits of the program over twelve months post-intervention in comparison to no treatment, but not active treatment, control conditions: Steven M. Brunwasser, Jane E. Gillham, and Eric S. Kim, “A Meta-Analytic Review of the Penn Resiliency Program’s Effect on Depressive Symptoms,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 77 (2009): 1042–54.
cognitive behavioral therapy: For more information on cognitive therapy, see www.beckinstitute.org.
“I get back on my feet”: Rhonda Hughes, Helen Herrmann Professor of Mathematics Emeritus at Bryn Mawr College and cofounder of the EDGE Program, in conversation with the author, May 25, 2013.
“Don’t give up!”: Sylvia Bozeman, professor emeritus of mathematics at Spelman College, in correspondence with the author, October 14, 2015. Sylvia has made similar remarks in Edna Francisco, “Changing the Culture of Math,” Science, September 16, 2005. I should also note that sometimes there’s nobody available to tell you to keep going. Psychologist Kristin Neff suggests thinking about what you would say to a friend who was struggling with a similar situation, and then to practice saying similar compassionate, understanding things to yourself.
CHAPTER 10: PARENTING FOR GRIT
“can quite overwhelm him”: John B. Watson, Psychological Care of Infant and Child (London: Unwin Brothers, 1928), 14.
“give them a pat on the head”: Ibid., 73.
“my parents were my foundation”: Don Amore, “Redemption for a Pure Passer?” Hartford Courant, January 29, 1995.
“I’d like to come home”: Grit: The True Story of Steve Young, directed by Kevin Doman (Cedar Fort, KSL Television, and HomeSports, 2014), DVD.
“You’re not coming back here”: Ibid.
“I threw over 10,000 spirals”: Steve Young with Jeff Benedict, “Ten Thousand Spirals,” chapter in forthcoming book, 2015, http://www.jeffbenedict.com/index.php/blog/389-ten-thousand-spirals.
“I couldn’t get a hit”: Doman, Grit: The True Story.
“you cannot quit”: Christopher W. Hunt, “Forever Young, Part II: Resolve in the Face of Failure,” Greenwich Time, February 2, 2013.
“and I’d be hitting them”: Doman, Grit: The True Story.
“Endure to the end, Steve”: The Pro Football Hall of Fame, “Steve Young’s Enshrinement Speech Transcript,” August 7, 2005.
“The name really fits him”: Doman, Grit: The True Story.
ten thousand sit-ups in a row: Kevin Doman, “Grit: The True Story of Steve Young,” Deseret News, April 4, 2014.
“Our Steve is a great kid!”: Sherry and Grit Young, parents of Steve Young, in an interview with the author, August 23, 2015.
“Everything is contextual”: Steve Young, former quarterback of the San Francisco 49ers, in an interview with the author, August 18, 2015.
funniest comics in Britain: Observer, “The A-Z of Laughter (Part Two),” Guardian, December 7, 2003.
“came from my family”: Francesca Martinez, comedian, in an interview with the author, August 4, 2015.
“then you can reassess”: Francesca Martinez, What the **** Is Normal?! (London: Virgin Books, 2014), 185.
“leave formal education”: Martinez, interview. In her book, Francesca gives a similar account.
“the throwing of objects”: Martinez, What the **** Is Normal?!, 48.
“authoritative parenting”: Wendy S. Grolnick and Richard M. Ryan, “Parent Styles Associated with Children’s Self-Regulation and Competence in School,” Journal of Educational Psychology 81 (1989): 143–54. Earl S. Schaefer, “A Configurational Analysis of Children’s Reports of Parent Behavior,” Journal of Consulting Psychology 29 (1965): 552–57. Diana Baumrind, “Authoritative Parenting Revisited: History and Current Status,” in Authoritative Parenting: Synthesizing Nurturance and Discipline for Optimal Child Development, ed. Robert E. Larzelere, Amanda Sheffield Morris, and Amanda W. Harrist (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2013), 11–34.
a moratorium on further research: Laurence Steinberg, “Presidential Address: We Know Some Things: Parent-Adolescent Relationships in Retrospect and Prospect,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 11 (2001): 1–19.
warm, respectful, and demanding parents: Laurence Steinberg, Nina S. Mounts, Susie D. Lamborn, and Sanford M. Dornbusch, “Authoritative Parenting and Adolescent Adjustment Across Varied Ecological Niches,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 1 (1991): 19–36.
across a decade or more: Koen Luyckx et al., “Parenting and Trajectories of Children’s Maladaptive Behaviors: A 12-year Prospective Community Study,” Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 40 (2011): 468–78.
messages their children receive: Earl S. Schaefer, “Children’s Reports of Parental Behavior: An Inventory,” Child Development 36 (1965): 413–24. Nancy Darling and Laurence Steinberg, “Parenting Style as Context: An Integrative Model,” Psychological Bulletin 113 (1993): 487–96.
parenting assessment: Adapted with permission from Nancy Darling and Teru Toyokawa, “Construction and Validation of the Parenting Style Inventory II (PSI-II),” (unpublished manuscript, 1997).
as virtual “carbon copies”: Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila Ross, “Imitation of Film-Mediated Aggressive Models,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 (1963): 3–11.
“work toward distant goals”: Bloom, Developing Talent, 510.
“parents’ own interests”: Ronald S. Brandt, “On Talent Development: A Conversation with Benjamin Bloom,” Educational Leadership 43 (1985): 34.
the next generation: Center for Promise, Don’t Quit on Me: What Young People Who Left School Say About the Power of Relationships (Washington, D.C.: America’s Promise Alliance, 2015), www.gradnation.org/report/dont-quit-me.
“fifty-something, grizzled rocker”: Tobi Lütke, “The Apprentice Programmer,” Tobi Lütke’s blog, March 3, 2013, http://tobi.lutke.com/blogs/news/11280301-the-apprentice-programmer.
emerging research on teaching: Kathryn R. Wentzel, “Are Effective Teachers Like Good Parents? Teaching Styles and Student Adjustment in Early Adolescence,” Child Development 73 (2002): 287–301. Douglas A. Bernstein, “Parenting and Teaching: What’s the Connection in Our Classrooms?” Psychology Teacher Network, September 2013, http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2013/09/parenting-teaching.aspx.
1,892 different classrooms: Ronald F. Ferguson and Charlotte Danielson, “How Framework for Teaching and Tripod 7Cs Evidence Distinguish Key Components of Effective Teaching,” in Designing Teacher Evaluation Systems: New Guidance from the Measures of Effective Teaching Project, ed. Thomas J. Kane, Kerri A. Kerr, and Robert C. Pianta (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014), 98–133.
David Yeager and Geoff Cohen: David Scott Yeager et al., “Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise Interventions to Provide Critical Feedback Across the Racial Divide,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 143 (2013): 804–24. For the research on highly effective tutors that originally inspired this intervention, see Mark R. Lepper and Maria Woolverton, “The Wisdom of Practice: Lessons Learned from the Study of Highly Effective Tutors,” in Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education, ed. Joshua Aronson (New York: Academic Press, 2002), 135–58.
“have very high expectations”: Yeager et al., “Breaking the Cycle”
Cody Coleman: Cody Coleman, PhD candidate in computer science at Stanford University, in conversation with the author, May 24, 2013.
Chantel Smith: Chantel Smith, mathematics teacher at Winslow Township High School, in conversation with the author, March 15, 2015.
“Stay positive”: Cody Coleman, interview by Stephan
ie Renée, 900AM-WURD, October 31, 2014.
CHAPTER 11: THE PLAYING FIELDS OF GRIT
both challenged and having fun: Reed W. Larson and Douglas Kleiber, “Daily Experience of Adolescents,” in Handbook of Clinical Research and Practice with Adolescents, ed. Patrick H. Tolan and Bertram J. Cohler (Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1993), 125–45. Reed W. Larson, “Positive Development in a Disorderly World,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 21 (2011): 317–34. Data are originally from Reed W. Larson, Giovanni Moneta, Maryse H. Richards, and Suzanne Wilson, “Continuity, Stability, and Change in Daily Emotional Experience Across Adolescence,” Child Development 73 (2002): 1151–65.
Adapted with permission from Young et al. poster
See also David J. Shernoff, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Barbara Schneider, and Elisa Steele Shernoff, “Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory,” School Psychology Quarterly 18 (2003): 158–76. David J. Shernoff and Deborah Lowe Vandell, “Engagement in After-School Program Activities: Quality of Experience from the Perspective of Participants,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 36 (2007): 891–903. Kiyoshi Asakawa and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, “The Quality of Experience of Asian American Adolescents in Academic Activities: An Exploration of Educational Achievement,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 8 (1998): 241–62.
involved in extracurriculars: Reed W. Larson, “Toward a Psychology of Positive Youth Development,” American Psychologist 55 (2000): 170–83. See also Robert D. Putnam, Our Kids: The American Dream in Crisis (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015), 174–82.
predicts better outcomes: For example, see Jennifer Fredricks and Jacquelynne S. Eccles, “Extracurricular Participation Associated with Beneficial Outcomes? Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations,” Developmental Psychology 42 (2006): 698–713.
playing video games: Bureau of Labor Statistics, “American Time Use Survey,” Average Hours Spent Per Day in Leisure and Sports Activities, by Youngest and Oldest Populations Graph, 2013, http://www.bls.gov/TUS/CHARTS/LEISURE.HTM. See also Vanessa R. Wight, Joseph Price, Suzanne M. Bianchi, and Bijou R. Hunt, “The Time Use of Teenagers,” Social Science Research 38 (2009): 792–809.
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