61. DCI briefing for House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee, The Situation in Cambodia, March 10, 1975, pp. 1–3, DDRS; Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 3, p. 9; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, p. 437.
62. CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, intelligence memorandum, The Situation in Indochina (as of 1600 EST) No. 1, April 3, 1975, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP86T00608R0 00200060001-4, NA, CP; CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, intelligence memorandum, The Situation in Indochina (as of 1600 EST) No. 14, April 16, 1975, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79T00865A002500420001-9, NA, CP; Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 3, pp. 9–10; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, pp. 439–41.
63. Letter, Carver to Schlesinger, April 23, 1975, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP 80R01720R000400110002-0, NA, CP; DCI briefing for 24 April NSC Meeting, The Situation in Vietnam, April 24, 1975, pp. 1–2, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79R01142A 002100010004-8, NA, CP.
64. Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 3, pp. 11–12; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, pp. 442–44.
65. Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 3, p. 15.
8: Riding the Whirlwind
1. Dr. Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology During the Cold War, 1945–1989, bk. 2, Centralization Wins, 1960–1972, p. 293, and bk. 3, Retrenchment and Reform, 1972–1980, p. 21 (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 1995), NSA FOIA. See also U.S. House of Representatives, Appropriations Committee, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1972, 92nd Congress, 1st session, part 3, 1971, p. 536; U.S. House of Representatives, Appropriations Committee, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1975, 93rd Congress, 2nd session, part 1, 1974, p. 598; U.S. House of Representatives, Appropriations Committee, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1975, 93rd Congress, 2nd session, part 3, 1974, pp. 340, 663; U.S. Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Final Report, 94th Congress, 2nd session, bk. 1, 1976, p. 340.
2. William Reed and W. Craig Reed, “Thirteen Days: The Real Story,” Troika Magazine, 2001, http://www.troikamagazine.com/ network/ 13days.html.
3. OPNAVINST S3270.1, Employment and Operating Policy for the U.S. Navy HFDF Nets, May 18, 1984, pp. 2–4, U.S. Navy FOIA; OPNAVINST 02501.5E, Cryptologic Tasks Assigned to Fleet Commanders in Chief, June 24, 1969, p. 3, U.S. Navy FOIA; NSGINST C3270.2, Bullseye System Concept of Operations, June 30, 1989, p. 3, via Dr. Jeffrey T. Richelson; NWP-5, Naval Cryptologic Operations, pp. 3-3–3-4, U.S. Navy FOIA; 1984 Annual History Report for the Headquarters Naval Security Group Command, June 5, 1985, sec. 10, item 10.2.1, COMNAVSECGRU FOIA; Desmond Ball, “The U.S. Naval Ocean Surveillance Information System—Australia’s Role,” Pacific Defence Reporter, June 1982, pp. 45–46.
4. The seven technical research ships were the USS Oxford (AGTR-1), the USS Georgetown (AGTR-2), the USS Jamestown (AGTR-3), the USS Belmont (AGTR-4), the USS Liberty (AGTR-5), the USNS Private Jose F. Valdez (T-AG-169), and the USNS Joseph E. Muller (T-AG-171). “Technical research ship” section in History of COMINT Operations: 1917–1959, undated, RG-38, CNSG Library, box 104, file 5750/89, NA, CP; “Seaborne SIGINT Stations,” Cryptologic Milestones, issue 5 (May 1965): p. 2, NSA FOIA; message, JCS 5338, “Contingency Planning for TRS Operations,” November 6, 1965, DoD FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 845, Pentagon, Washington, DC; Julie Alger, A Review of the Technical Research Ship Program, 1961–1969, undated, NSA FOIA; Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 315; Wyman H. Packard, A Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence (Washington, DC: GPO, 1996), p. 114.
5. Confidential interviews. See also U.S. Senate, Armed Ser vices Committee, Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1994, 103rd Congress, 1st session, part 7, 1993, pp. 452, 456.
6. For building spy satellites to monitor the Soviet ABM program, see Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance, TCS-0108-66, Agenda for COMOR-M-390, November 16, 1966, p. 3, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79B01709A000100010029-0, NA, CP; letter, Helms to Vance, November 21, 1966, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79B01709A000 600060006-5, NA, CP; memorandum, Land and Killian to Hornig, December 15, 1966, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79B01709A000600060004-7, NA, CP. For the intelligence effort against the ABM, see Frank Eliot, “Moon Bounce ELINT,” Studies in Intelligence, Spring 1967; pp. 63–64, RG-263, entry 27, NA, CP; Edward Tauss, “Foretesting a Soviet ABM System,” Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1968: pp. 22–23, RG-263, entry 27, NA, CP; David S. Brandwein, “Interaction in Weapons R&D,” Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1968: pp. 18–19, RG-263, entry 27, NA, CP; Donald C. Brown, “On the Trail of Hen House and Hen Roost,” Studies in Intelligence, Spring 1969, pp. 11–19, RG-263, entry 27, box 16, NA, CP; Gene Poteat, “Stealth, Countermeasures, and ELINT, 1960–1975,” Studies in Intelligence, vol. 42, no. 1 (1998): pp. 53–54, 57–58, RG-263, NA, CP. Copley quote from “John O. Copley: Developing Early Signals Intelligence Programs,” in Robert A. McDonald, ed., Beyond Expectations— Building an American National Reconnaissance Capability: Recollections of the Pioneers and Foun-ders of National Reconnaissance (Bethesda, MD: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2002), p. 79.
7. Harvest was retired from use at NSA in 1976. “Harvest: NSA’s Ultra High-Speed Computer,” Cryptologic Milestones, issue 13 (November 1968): pp. 2–3, NSA FOIA; Sam Snyder, “Age of the Computer,” NSA Newsletter, November 1977, p. 15.
8. Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 368, NSA FOIA.
9. CIA, Report, The Long-Range Plan of the Central Intelligence Agency, August 31, 1965, p. 29, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP82M00311R000100350001-3, NA, CP; Richard M. Bissell Jr., Review of Selected NSA Cryptanalytic Efforts, February 18, 1965, p. 1.
10. The author is grateful to Dr. Jeffrey T. Richelson for providing a copy of this report. See also memorandum, Wheelon to DD/S&T, Advanced Planning Progress Report, May 26, 1965, p. 4, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP71B00822R000100110007-9, NA, CP; CIA, External Reviews of the Intelligence Community, December 1974, p. 10, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP87B01034R000700230001-3, NA, CP.
11. See, for example, CIA, memorandum, Areas Highly Suspected to Contain Soviet ICBM Launching Facilities, February 21, 1962, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T05449A 000200010001-0, NA, CP; Deployment Working Group of the Guided Missiles and Astronautics Intelligence Committee, Soviet Surface-to-Surface Missile Deployment, October 1, 1962, tab 1, p. 5, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T04757A000300010003-3, NA, CP; Guided Missiles and Astronautics Intelligence Committee, Preliminary Analysis of Missile-or Space-Associated Facilities at Emba, USSR, March 1963, pp. 4–6, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T05449A000200270001-2, NA, CP; CIA, memorandum, Rocket Engine Test Facility, Perm, USSR, September 28, 1964, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T05929 A000200010025-1, NA, CP.
12. Memorandum, SC No. 03292/61, Guided Missile Task Force Comments on AFCIN Concept Papers on Soviet Missile Deployment, February 14, 1961, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP70T00666R000100130027-2, NA, CP; memorandum for the file, Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, March 5, 1963, in Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States 1961–1963, vol. 7, Arms Control and Disarmament (Washington, DC: GPO, 1995); National Intelligence Estimate No. 11-2A-63, The Soviet Atomic Energy Program, July 2, 1963, p. 6, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000843188, http:// www.foia.cia.gov; NIE 11-11-66, Impact of a Threshold Test Ban Treaty on Soviet Military Programs, May 25, 1966, p. 11, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000239460, http:// www.foia.cia.gov.
13. CIA, Photographic Intelligence Center, PIC/JR-1023/61, Microwave Stations Within a 100-Kilometer Radius of Moscow, June 1961, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP78T04751 A000100010025-7, NA, CP; Economic Intelligence Committee, Subcommittee on Electronics and Telecommunications, EIR SR-6, Economic Intelligence Report: Status of High-Capacity Communications in the Soviet Bloc, October 1962, pp. 2–4, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79S01100A000100110007-1, NA, CP; CIA, Office of Research and Reports, CIA/RR
EP 65-68, Prospects and Problem Areas for the Development of Telecommunications in the Eu rope an Satellites, 1964–75, August 1965, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79T01049A003100 130001-2, NA, CP. Quote from Albert D. Wheelon, “And the Truth Shall Keep You Free: Recollections by the First Deputy Director for Science and Technology,” Studies in Intelligence, Spring 1995: p. 75, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000752314, http://foia.cia.gov. “Reestablish COMINT access” quote from memorandum, Wheelon to DD/S&T, Advanced Planning Progress Report, May 26, 1965, p. 6, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP71B00822R000100110007-9, NA, CP.
14. Carter background from biographical data sheet, Lt. General Marshall S. Carter, USA; “Commander, Diplomat, Executive Ends Distinguished Military Career,” NSA Newsletter, July 1969, p. 4, NSA FOIA.
15. David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The Invisible Government (New York: Vintage Books, 1974), p. 198; David C. Martin, Wilderness of Mirrors (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), p. 118; Doris M. Condit, History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, vol. 2, The Test of War, 1950–1953 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1988), p. 484; Dino Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Random House, 1990), pp. 85–86; Bruce Lambert, “Marshall Carter, 83, Intelligence Official and Marshall Aide,” New York Times, February 20, 1993.
16. Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 358.
17. “Poisoned the atmosphere” quote from Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 359.
18. Memorandum, Duckett to D/DCI/NIPE, DCI Report on the Community to the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, September 1968, pp. 3–4, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP71R00140A000100050001-0, NA, CP; memorandum, ASA/D/DCI/NIPE to Bross, SIGINT Collection Requirements, December 2, 1969, p. 1, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80B01138A000100080014-1, NA, CP; “Information Support to Intelligence Production: The Reality and the Dream,” Cryptologic Spectrum, vol. 10, no. 4 (Fall 1980): p. 4, NSA FOIA; Scott D. Breckinridge, The CIA and the U.S. Intelligence System (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986), p. 58.
19. “U.S. Electronic Espionage: A Memoir,” Ramparts, August 1972, pp. 43–44; Chet Flippo, “Can the CIA Turn Students into Spies?,” Rolling Stone, March 11, 1976, p. 30.
20. CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, CAESAR XXXVIII, intelligence report, Soviet Policy and the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, March 16, 1970, pp. 3–4, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, http://www.foia.cia.gov/ cpe.asp; William D. Gerhard and Henry W. Millington, Attack on a Sigint Collector, the U.S.S. Liberty (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, 1981), p. 1, NSA FOIA.
21. Gerhard and Millington, Attack, pp. 2–3.
22. CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, CAESAR XXXVIII, intelligence report, Soviet Policy and the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, March 16, 1970, p. 5, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, http://www.foia.cia.gov/cpe.asp.
23. Gerhard and Millington, Attack, pp. 2–3.
24. USAFSS History Office, A Special Historical Study of the Production and Use of Special Intelligence During World Contingencies: 1950–1970, March 1, 1972, pp. 95, 97, declassified through FOIA by the National Security Archive, Washington, DC.
25. Briefing Notes for Director of Central Intelligence Helms for Use at a White House Meeting, May 23, 1967, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP80R01580A0010210001-5, NA, CP; message, 231729Z, DIRNSA to JCS/Joint Reconnaissance Center, May 23, 1967, NSA FOIA; USAFSS History Office, A Special Historical Study of the Production and Use of Special Intelligence During World Contingencies: 1950–1970, March 1, 1972, pp. 97–98, declassified through FOIA by the National Security Archive, Washington, DC; Gerhard and Millington, Attack, p. 3; Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 428; J. L. Freshwater [William K. Parmenter], “Policy and Intelligence: The Arab-Israeli War,” Studies in Intelligence, Winter 1969, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79T01762A000500040020-8, NA, CP.
26. Message, ADP/224-67, DIRNSA to JCS, “Diversion of USS Liberty,” May 23, 1967, NSA FOIA; Gerhard and Millington, Attack, pp. 5, 13; Johnson, American Cryptology, bk. 2, p. 429. For U.S. Army Communications Support Unit, see Department of the Army, Asst Chief of Staff for Force Development, Active Army Troop List, part 4, June 1968, p. 3, copy in U.S. Army Center of Military History Library, Washington, DC.
27. Gerhard and Millington, Attack, pp. 10–12; Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron Two, Aviation Historical Summary: Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron Two (VQ-2): 1 Jan 1967 to 31 Dec 1967, March 4, 1969, p. 4, U.S. Navy FOIA.
28. USAFSS History Office, A Special Historical Study of the Production and Use of Special Intelligence During World Contingencies: 1950–1970, March 1, 1972, pp. 97–98, declassified through FOIA by the National Security Archive, Washington, DC.
29. Ibid., p. 98.
30. “U.S. Electronic Espionage,” pp. 43–44.
31. Oral history, Interview with Philip Merrill, January 22, 1997, Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
32. The description of this incident is taken from “Kagnew Station, Asmara, Eritrea,” undated, http://www.cdstrand.com/ areas/kagnew.htm.
33. Gerhard and Millington, Attack, p. 3.
34. “Arab States-Israel,” President’s Daily Brief, June 5, 1967, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000382247, http://www.foia.cia.gov; memorandum for the record, Walt Ros-tow’s Recollections of June 5, 1967, November 17, 1968, National Security File, NSC Histories, Middle East Crisis, vol. 3, LBJL, Austin, TX; Gerhard and Millington, Attack, p. 3.
35. CIA, Office of Current Intelligence, memorandum, The Arab-Israeli War: Who Fired the First Shot, June 5, 1967, pp. 1–2, National Security File, Country File: Middle East Crisis, Situations Reports, LBJL, Austin, TX; memorandum for the record, Walt Rostow’s Recollections of June 5, 1967, November 17, 1968, p. 2, National Security File, NSC Histories, Middle East Crisis, vol. 3, LBJL, Austin, TX.
36. Crispin Aubrey, Who’s Watching You? Britain’s Security Services and the Official Secrets Act (London: Penguin Books, 1981), p. 142.
37. David Leigh, The Frontiers of Secrecy (London: Junction Books, 1980), p. 191; Duncan Campbell, “Crisis in the Gulf 3: Inside Story: Under U.S. Eyes; The West Has a Hidden Advantage over Iraq,” Independent, September 30, 1990.
38. For the number of Soviet supply flights, see CIA, Directorate of Intelligence, ESAU XXXIX, intelligence report, Annex: The Sino-Soviet Dispute on Aid to North Vietnam (1965–1968), November 25, 1968, p. 63n, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, http://www.foia.cia.gov/cpe.asp; NIE 11-6-84, Soviet Global Military Reach, November 1984, p. 129, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000278544, http:// www.foia.cia.gov.
39. NSA OH-15-80, oral history, Interview with Robert L. Wilson, May 6, 1980, p. 10, NSA February 2007 USS Liberty Release.
40. “Arab States-Israel,” President’s Daily Brief, June 7, 1967, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000382249, http://www.foia.cia.gov; “Arab States-Israel,” President’s Daily Brief, June 9, 1967, CIA Electronic FOIA Reading Room, Document No. 0000382251, http:// www.foia.cia.gov.
41. The best single account of the Israeli attack on the USS Liberty remains James M. Ennes Jr., Assault on the Liberty (New York: Random House, 1979). The Israeli version of events is contained in Hirsh Goodman and Zeev Schiff, “The Attack on the Liberty,” Atlantic Monthly, September 1984, pp. 78–84. For the SIGINT aspects of the Liberty incident, see Gerhard and Millington, Attack, pp. 18, 26; 2nd Radio Battalion, FMF, Command Chronology, 2nd Radio Battalion, FMF: January 1, 1967–June 30, 1967, U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center, Quantico, VA. The literature on whether the Israeli attack was an accident or deliberate is voluminous and getting larger every day. See, for example, Reverdy S. Fishel, “The Attack on the Liberty: An ‘Accident’?,” Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, vol. 8, no. 3 (Fall 1995): p. 349.
42. CIA, intelligence memorandum, The Israeli Attack on the USS Liberty, June 13, 1967, p. 3, CIA Electronic F
OIA Reading Room, Document No. 0001359216, http://www.foia.cia.gov.
43. Ibid.; USAFSS History Office, A Special Historical Study of the Production and Use of Special Intelligence During World Contingencies: 1950–1970, March 1, 1972, p. 102, declassified through FOIA by the National Security Archive, Washington, DC.
44. For Kosygin’s June 10, 1967, message, see message, Kosygin to Johnson, June 19, 1967, National Security File, Head of State Correspondence, USSR, Washington-Moscow “Hot Line” Exchange, LBJL, Austin, TX. See also Lyndon Baines Johnson, The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency: 1963–1969 (New York: Holt, 1971), p. 302; L. Wainstein, Some Aspects of the U.S. Involvement in the Middle East Crisis, May–June 1967 (Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1968), p. 123, DoD FOIA Reading Room, Pentagon, Washington, DC. Helms quote from Robert M. Hathaway and Russell Jack Smith, Richard Helms as Director of Central Intelligence: 1966–1973 (Washington, DC: CIA History Staff, 1993), p. 142. For NSA being placed on alert, see Gerhard and Millington, Attack, p. 4.
45. Letter, Carroll to Helms, August 28, 1967, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79 B00972A000100070003-1, NA, CP; SC No. 10088/67, memorandum, Large-Scale Soviet Military Exercise [deleted], undated but circa late August 1967, CREST Collection, Document No. CIA-RDP79B00972A000100070001-3, NA, CP; TCS 95801/75, K. F. Spielmann Jr., The Evolution of Soviet Strategic Command and Control and Warning, 1945–72 (Washington, DC: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1975), p. 271, National Security Archive, Washington, DC.
46. Robert E. Newton, The Capture of the USS Pueblo and Its Effect on SIGINT Operations, vol. 7 Special Series, Crisis Collection (Fort Meade: Center for Cryptologic History, 1992), p. 11, DOCID 3075778, NSA FOIA; U.S. House of Representatives, Armed Services Committee, Hearings Regarding Inquiry into the U.S.S. Pueblo and EC-121 Incidents, 91st Congress, 1st session, 1969, p. 636; U.S. House of Representatives, Armed Services Committee, H.A.S.C. No. 91-12, Report of Inquiry into the U.S.S. Pueblo and EC-121 Plane Incidents, 91st Congress, 1st session, 1969, pp. 1632–33; Trevor Armbrister, A Matter of Accountability: The True Story of the Pueblo Affair (New York: Coward-McCann, 1970), pp. 82–85.
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