food and humanitarian aid, 121, 138, 152–53, 154
fuel oil, 151
international loans, 20
from Japan, 24, 69, 151, 152, 164
Korean Energy Development Organization, 151–52, 154, 172
monitoring, 152–53
nuclear program as leverage for, 147, 149–57, 209–10
from South Korea, 151, 152, 154, 156, 164–65, 172, 174–75
from Soviet Union, xiii, 19–20, 73–74, 75, 76, 77
Sunshine Policy, 163–65, 172, 173, 221
termination of Soviet, xiii, 74, 76, 77
from United States, 151–52, 155, 157, 164, 172
“Vision 3000” plan, 174–75
without conditions, 145, 150, 151–52, 209, 211
foreign currency earning enterprise (FCEE), 87–88
foreign policy. See North Korean diplomacy
Foster-Carter, Aidan, 105, 164, 219
Frank, Rudiger, 240
Gabroussenko, Tatiana, 80, 105
Gaddafi, Muammar, 149, 210
Gates, Robert, 255
gender equality, 24–26
See also women
Gender Equality Law, 25
Ghana, 149–50
Gomi, Yoji, 116
Goodkind, Daniel, 79
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 75, 193, 218
grain
amounts needed to feed populace, 78
during currency reform, 129, 130
price fluctuations, 120, 121–22, 125, 128
private trade in, 122
rationing, 34–35, 121–22, 124, 125
See also agriculture; public distribution system (PDS)
Great Leap Forward, 17, 73, 79–80
Great North Korean Famine, xiii, 26, 64, 79–80, 88–89, 121, 152–53, 238
Great Purge, 12–15, 26, 27, 52
Hŏ, Hŏn, 26, 14
Hŏ, Ka-i, 13
Hamhŭng chemical plant, 69
Han, Tŏk-su, 48
Havel, Vaclav, 228
Hawk, David, 47
health care, 64–66
Hecker, Siegfried, 155, 179, 253
hereditary groups, 41–42
Ho, Chŏng-suk, 26
Ho, Chi Minh, 5, 110
Ho, Chin, 22
housing, 37, 143–44
See also infrastructure
Hungary, 199, 229
Huntley, Wade, 208
Hussein, Saddam, 149
Hyundai Group, 165–66, 177
Im, Su-gyong, 222–25
industrial parks
Kaesŏng Industrial Zone, 165, 167–70, 175, 176, 219–20
proposal for second, 173, 221
industries
nationalization of, 7
restaurant, 85, 91–92, 93
retail, 85
state enterprises, 26, 36–37, 69–70, 72–73, 77–78, 83, 122
transportation, 85–86
wholesalers, 84–85
See also economy of North Korea; industrial parks; markets
infrastructure
deterioration, 77, 78
electricity, 69, 77, 78
housing, 37, 143–44
and Korean War, 69
roads, 77
transportation, 77, 85–86
inminban system, 38–39, 40, 43, 45
Institute for National Security Strategy, 236
Iran, 147
Iraq, 149, 204, 209
isolationism. See Communism; daily life of citizens
Israel, 204
Japan
abductions by N.K., 22–23, 152
Chongryon (Chosen Soren), 23, 24
ethnic Koreans in, 23–24, 48
foreign aid to N.K., 24, 69, 151, 152, 164
invasion of Manchuria, 3, 5, 14
as ruler of Korea, 3, 52
and World War II, 3–4
Johnson, Peter, 79
Joint Enterprise Law of 1984, 111
joint North-South enterprises
political advantages of, 219–21
See also Kaesŏng city tours; Kaesŏng Industrial Zone (KIZ); Kŭmgang Mountain tourist zone
Juche Idea, 29, 57, 59, 67–68, 111, 143
See also unification
Kaesŏng city tours, 165, 167, 175
Kaesŏng Industrial Zone (KIZ), 165, 167–70, 175, 176, 219–20
Kalugin, Oleg, 218
Kang, Ch’ŏl-hwan, 47–48
Kang, Hyong-kwon, 34
KBS Radio, 226
Kelly, James, 153
Khrushchev, Nikita, 18
Kim, Ch’aek, 14
Kim, Dae Jung
inter-Korean summit, 164
Nobel Peace Prize, 164
as president of South Korea, 162–63, 164
Sunshine Policy, 163
Kim family regime. See North Korean leadership (Kim family regime)
Kim, Hyŏng-jik, 52, 100
Kim, Il Sung
appearance, 4
birth, 4, 53
children, 32, 51, 54
death, 76
as dictator, 13
education, 5
family background, 4–5
installation by Soviet military, 4, 6–7
Juche ideology, 67–68
and Korean War, 11–12
military career, 1–2, 3, 4, 5
naming of successor, 68
nationalism, 6
personality cult, 50–52
portraits and iconography, 32–34, 51
views of Communism, 5–6
wives, 26, 32, 51, 54, 140
See also North Korea (Kim Il Sung era)
Kim, Jong Il
children, 55
and currency reform, 126, 128–29
death, 55, 135–36
inter-Korean summit, 164
media reports, 100
mother, 32, 51, 54, 68
personality, 69
personality cult, 51, 52
portraits and iconography, 32, 33, 34, 51, 52
relationship with Bush, 154
successor to, 55–56, 132–35, 136–37
as successor to Kim Il Sung, 1, 26, 54, 68–69, 138
travel, 179
wives and girlfriends, 54–55, 69, 140
See also North Korea (Kim Jong Il era)
Kim, Jong Nam, 55, 116–17, 132–33, 135
Kim, Jong Suk (Chŏng-suk)
death, 54
iconography, 32, 33, 51, 52
marriage to Kim Il Sung, 54, 140
as mother of Kim Jong Il, 32, 51, 54, 68
personality cult, 140
Kim, Jong Un
advisors, 191–92
appearance, xiv, 134, 137
education, 133
iconography, 32
interest in pop culture, 139–40, 141
interest in reform, xiv, 141–42, 258
personality cult, 52, 138
promotion to general, 134
as successor to Kim Jong Il, 26, 51, 55, 133–35, 136–42, 252
wife, 56, 140, 141
See also North Korea (Kim Jong Un succession)
Kim, Kyŏng-hŭi, 26, 55, 134, 135, 137
Kim, Ok, 55, 140
Kim, Sŏng-ae, 26, 54
Kim, Sam-yong, 14
Kim, Tu-bong, 14
Korea
Communist movement, 3
Japanese rule, 3, 52
partition of, 2, 9–10
post World War II, 1–4
See also North Korea (DPRK); South Korea (ROK)
Korea Economic Institute, 236
Korean Communist movement, 3
Korean Communist Party, 46, 52
Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO), 151–52, 154, 172
Korean War
Armistice Treaty, 11, 27
events of, 10–11, 28, 69, 142
impact on Korean society, 11–12, 16, 28
“Second Korean War,” 28–29
Korean Workers’ Party (KWP)
conferences, 68
, 133–34
and Korean War, 11
membership in, 40
origins, 7, 13
and Rodong Shinmun (newspaper), 18, 99–102
and social advancement, 40, 107
Ko, Yŏng-hŭi, 55
Kŭmgang Mountain tourist zone, 165–67, 175
Land Reform Law, 6, 7, 240–41
Laos, 95
Lee, Myung Bak, 173–74, 175, 176
Lee, Yong Ho, 137, 141
Leninism, 7, 9, 50–51
Libya, 149, 209–10
life expectancy, 64
See also health care
Lim, Un, 22
Macao, 55, 116, 133, 154, 251
Manchuria, 3, 5, 14, 181
Maoism, 16, 17, 50, 72, 110, 135, 213
Mao, Zedong
and early Communism, 5
personality cult, 50
political persecution by, 46
successor to, 68
See also Maoism
March 1st Uprising of 1919, 52
markets
during currency reform, 129, 130, 132
during Kim Il Sung’s era, 36
government crackdowns, 108, 119–23, 126, 129, 130, 132
government tolerance of, 36, 120, 121, 130, 132
as necessary income source, 82, 83–85, 108
operators of, 83–84, 122–23, 130
and “7.1 measures,” 111, 119–20
See also economy of North Korea; private enterprise
marriage
divorce, 25, 26
and housing, 37
and sŏngbun system, 42
Marxism, 3, 9, 25, 26, 50–51, 52
methamphetamines, 86
military spending, 71–72
Milne, A.A., 139
Ministry for Protection of State Security (MPSS), 49
Mongolia, 95
Mun, Ik-hwan, 224
Myers, Brian, 67, 105
Nam, Sung-wook, 236
narcotics. See drugs
National Defense Commission, 138
NLL (maritime border), 178, 179
Noland, Marcus, 189
North Korea (DPRK)
capital of. See Pyongyang, N.K.
creation of, 2, 9
literature, 80–82
natural resources, xi, 87, 162, 181, 182
See also economy of North Korea; foreign aid; North Korean diplomacy; North Korean leadership (Kim family regime); nuclear weapons program; North Korea headings
North Korea (Kim Il Sung era/1948-1994)
abductions, 22–23
badges, 33, 51
clothing, 87
Communism, 3–4, 5–6, 8–9, 16–17, 52–53
control and surveillance. See daily life of citizens
economy, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 66–67, 70, 71–74, 118–19
education. See education
employment. See employment
ethnic returnees from Japan, 23–24, 48
foreign policy, 15–24
gender relations, 24–26
government counterfeiting, 21–22
government smuggling, 20–22
health care, 64–66
ideology and propaganda, 50–53, 56–61, 66, 67–68
isolationism, 39, 43–45, 53, 225
Korean War. See Korean War
land reform law, 6, 7, 240–41
national Stalinism, xii, 1, 34, 50, 75, 82, 190
North Korean Constitution, 6
Politburo, 7, 13–15
political persecution. See political persecution
prison camps. See political persecution
promises of, 8–9, 61–67
publications, 44, 45, 52
Pueblo seizure, 30–31
purges of party leadership, 12–15, 26, 27, 52
refugees to South Korea, 7–8
relations with China, 11, 19–20, 73–74, 75, 76
secretiveness, 46–47, 69–70
and Sino-Soviet split, 16–20, 28, 76
Soviet role in, 1–3, 4, 6–9, 10, 11–12, 16–20, 28, 50, 142–43, 156, 183
travel. See daily life of citizens
See also Kim, Il Sung
North Korea (Kim Jong Il era/1994-2011)
agriculture in. See agriculture
awareness of outside world, 102–08
cell phones, 97
clothing, 87, 90, 91
computers, 103–04
consumer goods, 87, 93, 103–04
corruption and bribery, 77, 89–91, 92, 93
criminal activities, 86–87
currency reform, 126–32
dates of, 76
drugs, 86–87, 112
economy, 74, 75, 76–80, 82–91
food. See food supply
foreign aid. See foreign aid
infrastructure, 77, 78
joint North-South enterprises, 164–70, 219–20, 221
military service, 107
newly rich citizens, 91–93
political crimes, 89–90
propaganda, 99–102, 105
refugees to China, 94–95, 102–03, 123
refugees to South Korea, 95–99
remittances from South Korea, 97
riots, 107–08
smuggling, 90
special economic zones (SEZ), 170–72
travel, 90–91, 93
weakening of government controls, 89–90, 107–08
See also Kim, Jong Il
North Korea (present into future)
awareness of outside world, 190–91, 214–17, 225
generational shift, xiv, 191
missile tests, 138–39, 176
pop culture, 139–40, 141
potential for crisis, xiv–xv, 191–96
potential for reform, xiv, 141–42, 258
potential for stability, 196–202
succession of Kim Jong Un, 26, 51, 55, 133–35, 136–42, 252
two possible outcomes, 202
See also Kim, Jong Un; North Korean diplomacy; nuclear weapons program; opening to outside world; unification
North Korean diplomacy
international incidents
death of South Korean housewife, 175
detention of US journalists, 176–77
Kaesŏng city tours, 175
missile tests, 138–39, 176
nuclear tests, 156, 176, 204, 253
shelling of Yeongpyeong, 179
sinking of Cheonan, 179
key relationships
China, 156, 179–85
South Korea, 175–76, 177–79, 211
United States, 151–52, 154–55, 176–79, 210–12
potential international responses
acceptance of nuclear program, 252–55
hard-line strategies, 203–08, 258
military reprisals, 204–06
sanctions, 206–08
short-term strategies, 252–56
six-party talks, 155, 157, 200, 255–56
soft-line approach, 208–12, 258
“strategic patience,” 177, 210–12, 216
“three no’s” approach, 253–55
U.S. security guarantees, 209–10
tactics
brinksmanship, xi–xii, xiii, xv, 172, 188
charm offensives, 176–77
crisis manufacturing, 175–76, 177–79, 211
See also foreign aid; nuclear weapons program
North Korean leadership (Kim family regime)
behavior as survival strategy, xii, xiii–xiv, xv, 109, 111–12, 132, 190, 207, 209, 211, 212–13, 257, 260
fears of retribution, 115, 118, 250
female bureaucrats, 26
generational shift, 141, 191
money laundering, 154, 157
personality cults, 32, 33, 214–15
portraits and iconography, 32–34
potential future collapse, xiv–xv, 216, 233–34, 258
resistance to reforms, xv, 75, 109, 110–19, 120, 145, 189–90, 215–16
South Korea as difficulty for, xiii, 43, 112–15, 118, 214–15
victims of, xiii, xv, 212, 258
North-South Joint Communiqué, 31
Norway, 20–21
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 148, 151, 154, 181, 254
nuclear weapons program
Agreed Framework treaty, 151
Chinese views of, 180, 181–82, 184, 185
as diplomatic brinksmanship, xii, xv, 138–39, 145, 147, 149–57, 209–10
highly enriched uranium program, 153–54, 179
military purposes, 149
missile tests, 138–39, 176
Non-Proliferation Treaty, 148, 151, 154, 181, 254
North Korean justification for, 149
nuclear tests, 156, 176, 204, 253
proliferation threat, 147
research program, 147–49, 253
“second nuclear crisis,” 153–55, 164
six-party talks, 155, 157, 200, 255–56
South Korean response to, 177
“three no’s” approach, 253–55
UN Security Council response, 156, 176
U.S. response to, 146–47, 148, 177, 179, 203–04, 252–55
Obama, Barack, 175
Olympic games, 32, 222
opening to outside world
digital technologies, 217, 227–28
DVDs, 103, 130, 189, 190, 216, 225, 227
exchange programs, 216, 217–19, 225
and Im-Su-gyong’s visit, 222–25
leaflets, 226–27
radio broadcasts, 190, 225, 226
role in speeding change, 216, 258–60
role of North Korean refugees, 230–31
“second society,” 228–30
See also daily life of citizens
organizational life, 39–41, 45, 122
outside world. See daily life of citizens; opening to outside world
Pak, Chŏng-ae, 14, 26
Pak, Hŏn-Yŏng, 13, 46
Pak, Il-u, 14
Pakistan, 147
Pak, Keong-Suk, 79
Pak, Nam-gi, 131
Party Youth, 40
People’s Daily (Peking newspaper), 44
Poland
Communist collapse, 229
democracy movement, 226
N.K. ambassador to, 54
political persecution
of Christians, 7–8
during Kim Il Sung’s regime, 45–49, 91
during Kim Jong Il’s regime, 89, 90–91
family responsibility principle, 47–48, 91
police informers, 49
prison camps, xiii, 6, 45–49, 91
secretiveness of, 46–47
trials, 46, 47
Pol Pot, 16
Pravda (Moscow newspaper), 18, 44
prison camps
contemporary, 45–46, 47
during Kim Il Sung’s regime, xiii, 6, 45–49
family responsibility principle, 47–48, 91
zones in, 48–49
private enterprise
as capitalism “from below,” 82–88, 119, 120, 189
elimination of, 34–35
money dealers, 87
and new rich, 92–93
restaurants, 85, 91–92, 93
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